Effect of bipolar-plates design on corrosion, mass and heat transfer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells and water electrolyzers: A review

Jiuhong Zhang; Xiejing Luo; Yingyu Ding; Luqi Chang; Chaofang Dong

doi:10.1007/s12613-023-2803-6

Volume 31 Issue 7

Jul. 2024

Turn off MathJax

Article Contents

Article Navigation > International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials > 2024 > 31(7): 1599-1616

Jiuhong Zhang, Xiejing Luo, Yingyu Ding, Luqi Chang, and Chaofang Dong, Effect of bipolar-plates design on corrosion, mass and heat transfer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells and water electrolyzers: A review, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 31(2024), No. 7, pp. 1599-1616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-023-2803-6

Cite this article as:

Jiuhong Zhang, Xiejing Luo, Yingyu Ding, Luqi Chang, and Chaofang Dong, Effect of bipolar-plates design on corrosion, mass and heat transfer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells and water electrolyzers: A review, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 31(2024), No. 7, pp. 1599-1616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-023-2803-6

Citation:

PDF( 4817 KB)

Invited Review

Effect of bipolar-plates design on corrosion, mass and heat transfer in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells and water electrolyzers: A review

+ Author Affiliations

Corresponding author:
Chaofang Dong E-mail: cfdong@ustb.edu.cn
Received: 15 August 2023; Revised: 29 November 2023; Accepted: 30 November 2023; Available online: 1 December 2023

Abstract

Abstract

Attaining a decarbonized and sustainable energy system, which is the core solution to global energy issues, is accessible through the development of hydrogen energy. Proton-exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs) are promising devices for hydrogen production, given their high efficiency, rapid responsiveness, and compactness. Bipolar plates account for a relatively high percentage of the total cost and weight compared with other components of PEMWEs. Thus, optimization of their design may accelerate the promotion of PEMWEs. This paper reviews the advances in materials and flow-field design for bipolar plates. First, the working conditions of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and PEMWEs are compared, including reaction direction, operating temperature, pressure, input/output, and potential. Then, the current research status of bipolar-plate substrates and surface coatings is summarized, and some typical channel-rib flow fields and porous flow fields are presented. Furthermore, the effects of materials on mass and heat transfer and the possibility of reducing corrosion by improving the flow field structure are explored. Finally, this review discusses the potential directions of the development of bipolar-plate design, including material fabrication, flow-field geometry optimization using three-dimensional printing, and surface-coating composition optimization based on computational materials science.
- bipolar-plates;
- flow design;
- mass and heat transfer;
- corrosion;
- water electrolyzers;
- fuel cells

FullText(HTML)

Supplements(0)

References(131)

References

[1]	I. Staffell, D. Scamman, A. V. Abad, et al., The role of hydrogen and fuel cells in the global energy system, Energy Environ. Sci., 12(2019), No. 2, p. 463. doi: 10.1039/C8EE01157E
[2]	M.L. Yue, H. Lambert, E. Pahon, R. Roche, S. Jemei, and D. Hissel, Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies, applications, trends and challenges, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 146(2021), art. No. 111180. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111180
[3]	R.W. Howarth and M.Z. Jacobson, How green is blue hydrogen?, Energy Sci. Eng., 9(2021), No. 10, p. 1676. doi: 10.1002/ese3.956
[4]	X. Liu, G.Y. Liu, J.L. Xue, X.D. Wang, and Q.F. Li, Hydrogen as a carrier of renewable energies toward carbon neutrality: State-of-the-art and challenging issues, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 29(2022), No. 5, p. 1073. doi: 10.1007/s12613-022-2449-9
[5]	S.A. Grigoriev, V.N. Fateev, D.G. Bessarabov, and P. Millet, Current status, research trends, and challenges in water electrolysis science and technology, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(2020), No. 49, p. 26036. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.03.109
[6]	M. David, C. Ocampo-Martínez, and R. Sánchez-Peña, Advances in alkaline water electrolyzers: A review, J. Energy Storage, 23(2019), p. 392. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.03.001
[7]	X.J. Luo, C.H. Ren, J. Song, et al., Design and fabrication of bipolar plates for PEM water electrolyser, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 146(2023), p. 19. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2022.10.039
[8]	Z.Y. Kang, T. Schuler, Y.Y. Chen, M. Wang, F.Y. Zhang, and G. Bender, Effects of interfacial contact under different operating conditions in proton exchange membrane water electrolysis, Electrochim. Acta, 429(2022), art. No. 140942. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140942
[9]	S. Lædre, C.M. Craciunescu, T. Khoza, et al., Issues regarding bipolar plate-gas diffusion layer interfacial contact resistance determination, J. Power Sources, 530(2022), art. No. 231275. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.231275
[10]	X.J. Luo, L.Q. Chang, C.H. Ren, et al., Sandwich-like functional design of C/(Ti:C)/Ti modified Ti bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 585(2023), art. No. 233633. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233633
[11]	X.Z. Yuan, C. Nayoze-Coynel, N.M. Shaigan, et al., A review of functions, attributes, properties and measurements for the quality control of proton exchange membrane fuel cell components, J. Power Sources, 491(2021), art. No. 229540. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229540
[12]	M. Hala, J. Mališ, M. Paidar, and K. Bouzek, Characterization of commercial polymer-carbon composite bipolar plates used in PEM fuel cells, Membranes, 12(2022), No. 11, art. No. 1050. doi: 10.3390/membranes12111050
[13]	N.A. Mohd Radzuan, A.B. Sulong, and M.R. Somalu, Influence the filler orientation on the performance of bipolar plate, Sains Malays., 48(2019), No. 3, p. 669. doi: 10.17576/jsm-2019-4803-21
[14]	H.X. Cheng, H. Luo, X.F. Wang, et al., Improving the performance of titanium bipolar plate in proton exchange membrane water electrolysis environment by nitrogen–chromium composite cathode plasma electrolytic deposition, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(2023), No. 98, p. 38557. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.06.177
[15]	B. Xie, G.B. Zhang, Y. Jiang, et al., “3D+1D” modeling approach toward large-scale PEM fuel cell simulation and partitioned optimization study on flow field, eTransportation, 6(2020), art. No. 100090. doi: 10.1016/j.etran.2020.100090
[16]	W.T. Pan, P.H. Wang, X.L. Chen, F.C. Wang, and G.C. Dai, Combined effects of flow channel configuration and operating conditions on PEM fuel cell performance, Energy Convers. Manage., 220(2020), art. No. 113046. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113046
[17]	E. Rahmani, T. Moradi, S. Ghandehariun, G.F. Naterer, and A. Ranjbar, Enhanced mass transfer and water discharge in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell with a raccoon channel flow field, Energy, 264(2023), art. No. 126115. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2022.126115
[18]	W. Gao, Q.F. Li, K. Sun, R. Chen, Z.Z. Che, and T.Y. Wang, Mass transfer and water management in proton exchange membrane fuel cells with a composite foam-rib flow field, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 216(2023), art. No. 124595. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2023.124595
[19]	T.J. Pan, Y.J. Dai, J. Jiang, J.H. Xiang, Q.Q. Yang, and Y.S. Li, Anti-corrosion performance of the conductive bilayer CrC/CrN coated 304SS bipolar plate in acidic environment, Corros. Sci., 206(2022), art. No. 110495. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2022.110495
[20]	A. Kellenberger, D. Duca, N. Vaszilcsin, and C.M. Craciunescu, Electrochemical evaluation of niobium corrosion resistance in simulated anodic PEM electrolyzer environment, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 15(2020), No. 11, p. 10664. doi: 10.20964/2020.11.47
[21]	J. Jin, J.Z. Zhang, M.L. Hu, and X. Li, Investigation of high potential corrosion protection with titanium carbonitride coating on 316L stainless steel bipolar plates, Corros. Sci., 191(2021), art. No. 109757. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109757
[22]	S. Simaafrookhteh, M. Khorshidian, and M. Momenifar, Fabrication of multi-filler thermoset-based composite bipolar plates for PEMFCs applications: Molding defects and properties characterizations, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(2020), No. 27, p. 14119. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.03.105
[23]	F. Roncaglia, M. Romagnoli, S. Incudini, et al., Graphite-epoxy composites for fuel-cell bipolar plates: Wet vs dry mixing and role of the design of experiment in the optimization of molding parameters, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 5, p. 4407. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.10.272
[24]	J. Chen, R.L. Fan, Y.H. Peng, et al., Tuning the performance of composite bipolar plate for proton exchange membrane fuel cell by modulating resin network structure, J. Power Sources, 582(2023), art. No. 233566. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233566
[25]	L.X. Fan, Y. Liu, X.B. Luo, Z.K. Tu, and S.H. Chan, A novel gas supply configuration for hydrogen utilization improvement in a multi-stack air-cooling PEMFC system with dead-ended anode, Energy, 282(2023), art. No. 129004. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2023.129004
[26]	J. Shen, L.P. Zeng, Z.C. Liu, and W. Liu, Performance investigation of PEMFC with rectangle blockages in Gas Channel based on field synergy principle, Heat Mass Transf., 55(2019), No. 3, p. 811. doi: 10.1007/s00231-018-2473-5
[27]	J.C. Kurnia, A.P. Sasmito, and T. Shamim, Advances in proton exchange membrane fuel cell with dead-end anode operation: A review, Appl. Energy, 252(2019), art. No. 113416. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113416
[28]	Q. Feng, X.Z. Yuan, G.Y. Liu, et al., A review of proton exchange membrane water electrolysis on degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies, J. Power Sources, 366(2017), p. 33. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.006
[29]	G. Bender, M. Carmo, T. Smolinka, et al., Initial approaches in benchmarking and round robin testing for proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 44(2019), No. 18, p. 9174. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.02.074
[30]	E. Kuhnert, M. Heidinger, D. Sandu, V. Hacker, and M. Bodner, Analysis of PEM water electrolyzer failure due to induced hydrogen crossover in catalyst-coated PFSA membranes, Membranes, 13(2023), No. 3, art. No. 348. doi: 10.3390/membranes13030348
[31]	E. Chalkova, M.V. Fedkin, S. Komarneni, and S.N. Lvov, Nafion/zirconium phosphate composite membranes for PEMFC operating at up to 120°C and down to 13% RH, J. Electrochem. Soc., 154(2007), No. 2, art. No. B288. doi: 10.1149/1.2405731
[32]	S. Ryu, B. Lee, J.H. Kim, C. Pak, and S.H. Moon, High-temperature operation of PEMFC using pore-filling PTFE/Nafion composite membrane treated with electric field, Int. J. Energy Res., 45(2021), No. 13, p. 19136. doi: 10.1002/er.7017
[33]	A. Lotrič, M. Sekavčnik, I. Kuštrin, and M. Mori, Life-cycle assessment of hydrogen technologies with the focus on EU critical raw materials and end-of-life strategies, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 16, p. 10143. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.06.190
[34]	W. Xu, K. Scott, and S. Basu, Performance of a high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolyser, J. Power Sources, 196(2011), No. 21, p. 8918. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.12.039
[35]	I. Dedigama, K. Ayers, P.R. Shearing, and D.J.L. Brett, An experimentally validated steady state polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolyser model, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 9(2014), No. 5, p. 2662. doi: 10.1016/S1452-3981(23)07955-5
[36]	V.K. Puthiyapura, M. Mamlouk, S. Pasupathi, B.G. Pollet, and K. Scott, Physical and electrochemical evaluation of ATO supported IrO₂ catalyst for proton exchange membrane water electrolyser, J. Power Sources, 269(2014), p. 451. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.06.078
[37]	H.C. Chen, Z. Liu, X.C. Ye, L. Yi, S.C. Xu, and T. Zhang, Air flow and pressure optimization for air supply in proton exchange membrane fuel cell system, Energy, 238(2022), art. No. 121949. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2021.121949
[38]	V. Lakshminarayanan and P. Karthikeyan, Performance enhancement of interdigitated flow channel of PEMFC by scaling up study, Energy Sources Part A, 42(2020), No. 14, p. 1785. doi: 10.1080/15567036.2019.1604889
[39]	C. Werner, L. Busemeyer, and J. Kallo, The impact of operating parameters and system architecture on the water management of a multifunctional PEMFC system, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 40(2015), No. 35, p. 11595. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.02.012
[40]	Y.J. Ding, L.F. Xu, W.B. Zheng, et al., Characterizing the two-phase flow effect in gas channel of proton exchange membrane fuel cell with dimensionless number, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(2023), No. 13, p. 5250. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.288
[41]	X. Zhou, L.Z. Wu, Z.Q. Niu, et al., Effects of surface wettability on two-phase flow in the compressed gas diffusion layer microstructures, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 151(2020), art. No. 119370. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119370
[42]	T. Krenz, O. Weiland, P. Trinke, et al., Temperature and performance inhomogeneities in PEM electrolysis stacks with industrial scale cells, J. Electrochem. Soc., 170(2023), No. 4, art. No. 044508. doi: 10.1149/1945-7111/accb68
[43]	T. Miličić, H. Altaf, N. Vorhauer-Huget, L.A. Živković, E. Tsotsas, and T. Vidaković-Koch, Modeling and analysis of mass transport losses of proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer, Processes, 10(2022), No. 11, art. No. 2417. doi: 10.3390/pr10112417
[44]	M. Fang, J.X. Zou, C. Yin, and Y.T. Song, Prediction and parametric analysis of bubble humidifier performance in a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell test system by response surface methodology, Energy Sources Part A, 44(2022), No. 2, p. 3497. doi: 10.1080/15567036.2022.2066225
[45]	M. Li, K.J. Duan, N. Djilali, and P.C. Sui, Flow sharing and turbulence phenomena in proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack headers, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 44(2019), No. 57, p. 30306. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.140
[46]	Y.J. Deng, B. Chi, J. Li, et al., Atomic Fe-doped MOF-derived carbon polyhedrons with high active-center density and ultra-high performance toward PEM fuel cells, Adv. Energy Mater., 9(2019), No. 13, art. No. 1802856. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201802856
[47]	M. Qiao, Y. Wang, Q. Wang, et al., Hierarchically ordered porous carbon with atomically dispersed FeN₄ for ultraefficient oxygen reduction reaction in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 59(2020), No. 7, p. 2688. doi: 10.1002/anie.201914123
[48]	Y.Y. Zhou, Z.Y. Xie, J.X. Jiang, et al., Lattice-confined Ru clusters with high CO tolerance and activity for the hydrogen oxidation reaction, Nat. Catal., 3(2020), p. 454. doi: 10.1038/s41929-020-0446-9
[49]	X.C. Meng, H. Ren, J.K. Hao, and Z.G. Shao, Design and experimental research of a novel droplet flow field in proton exchange membrane fuel cell, Chem. Eng. J., 450(2022), art. No. 138276. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2022.138276
[50]	H. Teuku, I. Alshami, J. Goh, M.S. Masdar, and K.S. Loh, Review on bipolar plates for low-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolyzer, Int. J. Energy Res., 45(2021), No. 15, p. 20583. doi: 10.1002/er.7182
[51]	M. Phuangngamphan, M. Okhawilai, S. Hiziroglu, and S. Rimdusit, Development of highly conductive graphite-/graphene-filled polybenzoxazine composites for bipolar plates in fuel cells, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 136(2019), No. 11, art. No. e47183. doi: 10.1002/app.47183
[52]	N.A.M. Radzuan, M.Y. Zakaria, A.B. Sulong, and J. Sahari, The effect of milled carbon fibre filler on electrical conductivity in highly conductive polymer composites, Composites, Part B, 110(2017), p. 153. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.11.021
[53]	W.W. Li, S. Jing, S.B. Wang, C. Wang, and X.F. Xie, Experimental investigation of expanded graphite/phenolic resin composite bipolar plate, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 41(2016), No. 36, p. 16240. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.253
[54]	S.H. Frensch, F. Fouda-Onana, G. Serre, D. Thoby, S.S. Araya, and S.K. Kær, Influence of the operation mode on PEM water electrolysis degradation, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 44(2019), No. 57, p. 29889. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.169
[55]	K. McCay, S. Laedre, S.Y. Martinsen, G. Smith, A.O. Barnett, and P. Fortin, Communication-in situ monitoring of interfacial contact resistance in PEM fuel cells, J. Electrochem. Soc., 168(2021), No. 6, art. No. 064514. doi: 10.1149/1945-7111/ac0a1f
[56]	G.Y. Liu, F.G. Hou, S.L. Peng, X.D. Wang, and B.Z. Fang, Process and challenges of stainless steel based bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 29(2022), No. 5, p. 1099. doi: 10.1007/s12613-022-2485-5
[57]	P. Yi, L.J. Zhu, C.F. Dong, and K. Xiao, Corrosion and interfacial contact resistance of 316L stainless steel coated with magnetron sputtered ZrN and TiN in the simulated cathodic environment of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell, Surf. Coat. Technol., 363(2019), p. 198. doi: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.02.027
[58]	J.F. Shi, P.C. Zhang, Y.T. Han, et al., Investigation on electrochemical behavior and surface conductivity of titanium carbide modified Ti bipolar plate of PEMFC, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(2020), No. 16, p. 10050. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.203
[59]	G.Q. Yang, S.L. Yu, J.K. Mo, et al., Bipolar plate development with additive manufacturing and protective coating for durable and high-efficiency hydrogen production, J. Power Sources, 396(2018), p. 590. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.06.078
[60]	H.H. Ghahfarokhi, A. Saatchi, and S.M. Monirvaghefi, Corrosion investigation of chromium nitride and chromium carbide coatings for PEM fuel cell bipolar plates in simulated cathode condition, Fuel Cells, 16(2016), No. 3, p. 356. doi: 10.1002/fuce.201600005
[61]	T. Li, Z. Yan, Z.Z. Liu, Y.G. Yan, and Y.G. Chen, Surface microstructure and performance of TiN monolayer film on titanium bipolar plate for PEMFC, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 61, p. 31382. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.07.021
[62]	N. Rojas, M. Sánchez-Molina, G. Sevilla, et al., Coated stainless steels evaluation for bipolar plates in PEM water electrolysis conditions, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 51, p. 25929. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.03.100
[63]	P. Yi, D. Zhang, L. Peng, and X. Lai, Impact of film thickness on defects and the graphitization of nanothin carbon coatings used for metallic bipolar plates in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 10(2018), No. 40, p. 34561. doi: 10.1021/acsami.8b08263
[64]	S. Akula, P. Kalaiselvi, A.K. Sahu, and S. Chellammal, Electrodeposition of conductive PAMT/PPY bilayer composite coatings on 316L stainless steel plate for PEMFC application, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 34, p. 17909. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.02.196
[65]	Y. Wang, Y.H. Pang, H. Xu, A. Martinez, and K.S. Chen, PEM fuel cell and electrolysis cell technologies and hydrogen infrastructure development–A review, Energy Environ. Sci., 15(2022), No. 6, p. 2288. doi: 10.1039/D2EE00790H
[66]	D.C. Kong, C.F. Dong, X.Q. Ni, et al., Superior resistance to hydrogen damage for selective laser melted 316L stainless steel in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell environment, Corros. Sci., 166(2020), art. No. 108425. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2019.108425
[67]	Y. Zeng, Z. He, Q. Hua, Q. Xu, and Y. Min, Polyacrylonitrile infused in a modified honeycomb aluminum alloy bipolar plate and its acid corrosion resistance, ACS Omega, 5(2020), No. 27, p. 16976. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02742
[68]	H. Wakayama and K. Yamazaki, Low-cost bipolar plates of Ti₄O₇-coated Ti for water electrolysis with polymer electrolyte membranes, ACS Omega, 6(2021), No. 6, p. 4161. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c04786
[69]	H.S. Heo and S.J. Kim, Investigation of electrochemical characteristics and interfacial contact resistance of TiN-coated titanium as bipolar plate in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, Coatings, 13(2023), No. 1, art. No. 123. doi: 10.3390/coatings13010123
[70]	S. Lædre, O.E. Kongstein, A. Oedegaard, H. Karoliussen, and F. Seland, Materials for proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer bipolar plates, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 42(2017), No. 5, p. 2713. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.11.106
[71]	Y. Liu, S.B. Huang, S.L. Peng, H. Zhang, L.F. Wang, and X.D. Wang, Novel Au nanoparticles-inlaid titanium paper for PEM water electrolysis with enhanced interfacial electrical conductivity, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 29(2022), No. 5, p. 1090. doi: 10.1007/s12613-022-2452-1
[72]	A.S. Gago, S.A. Ansar, B. Saruhan, et al., Protective coatings on stainless steel bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers, J. Power Sources, 307(2016), p. 815. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.12.071
[73]	E.F. Mine, Y. Ito, Y. Teranishi, M. Sato, and T. Shimizu, Surface coating and texturing on stainless-steel plates to decrease the contact resistance by using screen printing, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 42(2017), No. 31, p. 20224. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.06.154
[74]	Y.L. Wang, S.H. Zhang, Z.X. Lu, P. Wang, X.H. Ji, and W.H. Li, Preparation and performance of electrically conductive Nb-doped TiO₂/polyaniline bilayer coating for 316L stainless steel bipolar plates of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, RSC Adv., 8(2018), No. 35, p. 19426. doi: 10.1039/C8RA02161A
[75]	Y.L. Wang, Q.Y. Tan, and B. Huang, Synthesis and properties of novel N/Ta-co-doped TiO₂ coating on titanium in simulated PEMFC environment, J. Alloys Compd., 879(2021), art. No. 160470. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.160470
[76]	W.J. Lee, E.Y. Yun, H.B.R. Lee, S.W. Hong, and S.H. Kwon, Ultrathin effective TiN protective films prepared by plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition for high performance metallic bipolar plates of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Appl. Surf. Sci., 519(2020), art. No. 146215. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.146215
[77]	L.X. Yang, R.J. Liu, Y. Wang, H.J. Liu, C.L. Zeng, and C. Fu, Corrosion and interfacial contact resistance of nanocrystalline β-Nb₂N coating on 430 FSS bipolar plates in the simulated PEMFC anode environment, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 63, p. 32206. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.06.207
[78]	J.J. Ma, J. Xu, S.Y. Jiang, P. Munroe, and Z.H. Xie, Effects of pH value and temperature on the corrosion behavior of a Ta₂N nanoceramic coating in simulated polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell environment, Ceram. Int., 42(2016), No. 15, p. 16833. doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.07.175
[79]	X.Z. Wang, T.P. Muneshwar, H.Q. Fan, K. Cadien, and J.L. Luo, Achieving ultrahigh corrosion resistance and conductive zirconium oxynitride coating on metal bipolar plates by plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition, J. Power Sources, 397(2018), p. 32. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.009
[80]	N. Abbas, X.D. Qin, S. Ali, et al., Study of microstructural variation with annealing temperature of Ti–Al–C films coated on stainless steel substrates, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(2020), No. 4, p. 3186. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.11.163
[81]	H.Q. Fan, D.D. Shi, X.Z. Wang, J.L. Luo, J.Y. Zhang, and Q. Li, Enhancing through-plane electrical conductivity by introducing Au microdots onto TiN coated metal bipolar plates of PEMFCs, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 45(2020), No. 53, p. 29442. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.07.270
[82]	X.Y. Wang, L.G. Cui, J. Feng, and W. Chen, Artificial intelligence for breast ultrasound: An adjunct tool to reduce excessive lesion biopsy, Eur. J. Radiol., 138(2021), art. No. 109624. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2021.109624
[83]	P.F. Yan, T. Ying, Y.X. Li, et al., A novel high corrosion-resistant polytetrafluoroethylene/carbon cloth/Ag coating on magnesium alloys as bipolar plates for light-weight proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 484(2021), art. No. 229231. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229231
[84]	P.P. Gao, Z.Y. Xie, X.B. Wu, et al., Development of Ti bipolar plates with carbon/PTFE/TiN composites coating for PEMFCs, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 43(2018), No. 45, p. 20947. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.09.046
[85]	P.Y. Yi, D. Zhang, D.K. Qiu, L.F. Peng, and X.M. Lai, Carbon-based coatings for metallic bipolar plates used in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 44(2019), No. 13, p. 6813. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.01.176
[86]	X.B. Li, L.F. Peng, D. Zhang, P.Y. Yi, and X.M. Lai, The frequency of pulsed DC sputtering power introducing the graphitization and the durability improvement of amorphous carbon films for metallic bipolar plates in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 466(2020), art. No. 228346. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228346
[87]	P.Y. Yi, W.X. Zhang, F.F. Bi, L.F. Peng, and X.M. Lai, Microstructure and properties of a-C films deposited under different argon flow rate on stainless steel bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 410(2019), p. 188.
[88]	A.L. Ahmad, U.R. Farooqui, and N.A. Hamid, Porous (PVDF-HFP/PANI/GO) ternary hybrid polymer electrolyte membranes for lithium-ion batteries, RSC Adv., 8(2018), No. 45, p. 25725. doi: 10.1039/C8RA03918F
[89]	V.A. Setyowati, H.C. Huang, C.C. Liu, and C.H. Wang, Effect of iron precursors on the structure and oxygen reduction activity of iron–nitrogen–carbon catalysts, Electrochim. Acta, 211(2016), p. 933. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.06.112
[90]	A.U. Devi, K. Divya, D. Rana, M.S. A. Saraswathi, and A. Nagendran, Highly selective and methanol resistant polypyrrole laminated SPVdF-co-HFP/PWA proton exchange membranes for DMFC applications, Mater. Chem. Phys., 212(2018), p. 533. doi: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.03.086
[91]	T.J. Pan, X.W. Zuo, T. Wang, J. Hu, Z.D. Chen, and Y.J. Ren, Electrodeposited conductive polypyrrole/polyaniline composite film for the corrosion protection of copper bipolar plates in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 302(2016), p. 180. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.10.027
[92]	X.J. Liu, T. Wu, Z.X. Dai, et al., Bipolarly stacked electrolyser for energy and space efficient fabrication of supercapacitor electrodes, J. Power Sources, 307(2016), p. 208. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.01.006
[93]	Y.L. Wang, S.H. Zhang, P. Wang, Z.X. Lu, S.B. Chen, and L.S. Wang, Synthesis and corrosion protection of Nb doped TiO₂ nanopowders modified polyaniline coating on 316 stainless steel bipolar plates for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, Prog. Org. Coat., 137(2019), art. No. 105327. doi: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.105327
[94]	G.Y. Liu, F.G. Hou, X.D. Wang, and B.Z. Fang, Conductive polymer and nanoparticle-promoted polymer hybrid coatings for metallic bipolar plates in proton membrane exchange water electrolysis, Appl. Sci., 13(2023), No. 3, art. No. 1244. doi: 10.3390/app13031244
[95]	S. Almheiri and H.T. Liu, Direct measurement of methanol crossover fluxes under land and channel in direct methanol fuel cells, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 40(2015), No. 34, p. 10969. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.126
[96]	L.Z. Wu, L. An, D.K. Jiao, Y.F. Xu, G.B. Zhang, and K. Jiao, Enhanced oxygen discharge with structured mesh channel in proton exchange membrane electrolysis cell, Appl. Energy, 323(2022), art. No. 119651. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119651
[97]	X.Y. Zhang, B.W. Wang, Y.F. Xu, et al., Effects of different loading strategies on the dynamic response and multi-physics fields distribution of PEMEC stack, Fuel, 332(2023), art. No. 126090. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126090
[98]	Z.M. Bao, Z.Q. Niu, and K. Jiao, Analysis of single- and two-phase flow characteristics of 3-D fine mesh flow field of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 438(2019), art. No. 226995. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226995
[99]	G.B. Zhang, X. Xie, B. Xie, Q. Du, and K. Jiao, Large-scale multi-phase simulation of proton exchange membrane fuel cell, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 130(2019), p. 555. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.10.122
[100]	F. Aubras, J. Deseure, J.J.A. Kadjo, et al., Two-dimensional model of low-pressure PEM electrolyser: Two-phase flow regime, electrochemical modelling and experimental validation, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 42(2017), No. 42, p. 26203. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.08.211
[101]	S. Park, W. Lee, and Y. Na, Performance comparison of proton exchange membrane water electrolysis cell using channel and PTL flow fields through three-dimensional two-phase flow simulation, Membranes, 12(2022), No. 12, art. No. 1260. doi: 10.3390/membranes12121260
[102]	L.Z. Wu, G.B. Zhang, B. Xie, C. Tongsh, and K. Jiao, Integration of the detailed channel two-phase flow into three-dimensional multi-phase simulation of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer cell, Int. J. Green Energy, 18(2021), No. 6, p. 541. doi: 10.1080/15435075.2020.1854270
[103]	E. Hontañón, M.J. Escudero, C. Bautista, P.L. Garcı́a-Ybarra, and L. Daza, Optimisation of flow-field in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells using computational fluid dynamics techniques, J. Power Sources, 86(2000), No. 1-2, p. 363. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00478-4
[104]	A. Kumar and R.G. Reddy, Effect of channel dimensions and shape in the flow-field distributor on the performance of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, J. Power Sources, 113(2003), No. 1, p. 11. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00475-5
[105]	Y.H. Lu and R.G. Reddy, Performance of micro-PEM fuel cells with different flow fields, J. Power Sources, 195(2010), No. 2, p. 503. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.07.003
[106]	S.Y. Zhang, H.T. Xu, Z.G. Qu, S. Liu, and F.K. Talkhoncheh, Bio-inspired flow channel designs for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: A review, J. Power Sources, 522(2022), art. No. 231003. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.231003
[107]	M. Sauermoser, B.G. Pollet, N. Kizilova, and S. Kjelstrup, Scaling factors for channel width variations in tree-like flow field patterns for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells-An experimental study, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 46(2021), No. 37, p. 19554. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.03.102
[108]	P. Trogadas, J.I.S. Cho, T.P. Neville, et al., A lung-inspired approach to scalable and robust fuel cell design, Energy Environ. Sci., 11(2018), No. 1, p. 136. doi: 10.1039/C7EE02161E
[109]	A. Ghanbarian and M.J. Kermani, Enhancement of PEM fuel cell performance by flow channel indentation, Energy Convers. Manage., 110(2016), p. 356. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.036
[110]	Y. Yin, S.Y. Wu, Y.Z. Qin, O.N. Otoo, and J.F. Zhang, Quantitative analysis of trapezoid baffle block sloping angles on oxygen transport and performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell, Appl. Energy, 271(2020), art. No. 115257. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115257
[111]	Y.L. Wang, X.A. Wang, Y.Z. Fan, W. He, J.L. Guan, and X.D. Wang, Numerical investigation of tapered flow field configurations for enhanced polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell performance, Appl. Energy, 306(2022), art. No. 118021. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.118021
[112]	C.J. Xu, H. Wang, and T.H. Cheng, Wave-shaped flow channel design and optimization of PEMFCs with a groove in the gas diffusion layer, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(2023), No. 11, p. 4418. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.10.028
[113]	X.C. Meng, H. Ren, F. Xie, and Z.G. Shao, Experimental study and optimization of flow field structures in proton exchange membrane fuel cell under different anode modes, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(2023), No. 63, p. 24447. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.03.229
[114]	G. Zhang, Z. Qu, W.Q. Tao, et al., Porous flow field for next-generation proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Materials, characterization, design, and challenges, Chem. Rev., 123(2023), No. 3, p. 989. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00539
[115]	Q. Wei, L.X. Fan, and Z.K. Tu, Hydrogen production in a proton exchange membrane electrolysis cell (PEMEC) with titanium meshes as flow distributors, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 48(2023), No. 93, p. 36271. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.06.052
[116]	G.B. Zhang, Z.G. Qu, and Y. Wang, Proton exchange membrane fuel cell of integrated porous bipolar plate–gas diffusion layer structure: Entire morphology simulation, eTransportation, 17(2023), art. No. 100250. doi: 10.1016/j.etran.2023.100250
[117]	Y. Nonobe, Development of the fuel cell vehicle mirai, IEEJ Trans. Electr. Electron. Eng., 12(2017), No. 1, p. 5. doi: 10.1002/tee.22328
[118]	C. Sun, Y. Wang, M.D. McMurtrey, N.D. Jerred, F. Liou, and J. Li, Additive manufacturing for energy: A review, Appl. Energy, 282(2021), art. No. 116041. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116041
[119]	X. He, D.C. Kong, Y.Q. Zhou, et al., Powder recycling effects on porosity development and mechanical properties of Hastelloy X alloy during laser powder bed fusion process, Addit. Manuf., 55(2022), art. No. 102840.
[120]	Y.F. Xu, G.B. Zhang, L.Z. Wu, Z.M. Bao, B.F. Zu, and K. Jiao, A 3-D multiphase model of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer based on open-source CFD, Digit. Chem. Eng., 1(2021), art. No. 100004. doi: 10.1016/j.dche.2021.100004
[121]	G.J. Chen, W.D. Shi, J. Xuan, et al., Improvement of under-the-rib oxygen concentration and water removal in proton exchange membrane fuel cells through three-dimensional metal printed novel flow fields, AlChE. J., 68(2022), No. 9, art. No. e17758. doi: 10.1002/aic.17758
[122]	G.Q. Yang, J.K. Mo, Z.Y. Kang, et al., Fully printed and integrated electrolyzer cells with additive manufacturing for high-efficiency water splitting, Appl. Energy, 215(2018), p. 202. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.02.001
[123]	G.Q. Yang, S.L. Yu, Z.Y. Kang, et al., A novel PEMEC with 3D printed non-conductive bipolar plate for low-cost hydrogen production from water electrolysis, Energy Convers. Manage., 182(2019), p. 108. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.12.046
[124]	G.Q. Yang, Z.Q. Xie, S.L. Yu, et al., All-in-one bipolar electrode: A new concept for compact and efficient water electrolyzers, Nano Energy, 90(2021), art. No. 106551. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106551
[125]	J.E. Park, J. Lim, M.S. Lim, et al., Gas diffusion layer/flow-field unified membrane-electrode assembly in fuel cell using graphene foam, Electrochim. Acta, 323(2019), art. No. 134808. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.134808
[126]	X.C. Wang, H.L. Ma, H.Q. Peng, et al., Enhanced mass transport and water management of polymer electrolyte fuel cells via 3-D printed architectures, J. Power Sources, 515(2021), art. No. 230636. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230636
[127]	A. Kopanidis, A. Theodorakakos, E. Gavaises, and D. Bouris, 3D numerical simulation of flow and conjugate heat transfer through a pore scale model of high porosity open cell metal foam, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 53(2010), No. 11-12, p. 2539. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.12.067
[128]	L. Wei, A.M. Dafalla, and F.M. Jiang, Effects of reactants/coolant non-uniform inflow on the cold start performance of PEMFC stack, Int. J. Hydrogen. Energy, 45(2020), No. 24, p. 13469. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.03.031
[129]	J. Choi and G. Son, Numerical study of droplet motion in a microchannel with different contact angles, J. Mech. Sci. Technol., 22(2008), No. 12, p. 2590. doi: 10.1007/s12206-008-0905-8
[130]	L.M. Pant, S.K. Mitra, and M. Secanell, Absolute permeability and Knudsen diffusivity measurements in PEMFC gas diffusion layers and micro porous layers, J. Power Sources, 206(2012), p. 153. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.01.099
[131]	S. Lee, T. Kim, and H. Park, Comparison of multi-inlet and serpentine channel design on water production of PEMFCs, Chem. Eng. Sci., 66(2011), No. 8, p. 1748. doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2011.01.007