Figure
1.
Schematic diagram of the synthesis process for ZnO micro/nanostructures.
Hao Liao, Shengen Zhang, Bo Liu, Xuefeng He, Jixin Deng, and Yunji Ding, Valuable metals recovery from spent ternary lithium-ion battery: A review, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 31(2024), No. 12, pp.2556-2581. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12613-024-2895-7
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Zinc oxide (ZnO), which is an important semiconductor, possesses excellent physical and chemical properties [1–2]; these properties promote wide applications, such as light-emitting diodes [3–4], ultraviolet (UV) detectors [5–6], gas sensors [7], and solar cells [8–10]. In addition, ZnO is a nontoxic green material, and its synthesis does not introduce toxic materials during the growth process. Importantly, ZnO exhibits direct bandgap of approximately 3.37 eV and low exciton binding energy of 60 meV [11]. Evidently, these unique properties enable ZnO crystals easily absorb UV light and generate electron–hole pairs, which make them suitable for optoelectronic applications, especially UV detectors [5].
ZnO micro/nanostructures vary in terms of physical properties, which results in their improved properties compared with those of bulk ZnO. To date, two primary methods are used for the synthesis of ZnO micro/nanostructures: hydrothermal reaction and chemical vapor deposition [12–15]. The synthesis of ZnO crystals with high-quality and low-density lattice defects can be achieved through chemical vapor deposition; however, such a process requires the use of expensive vacuum equipment [16]. The solution in the hydrothermal reaction of ZnO is usually aqueous, and the growth mechanism shows a close relation to external conditions, such as solution pH [17], temperature, reaction concentration, and additive [12]. This method is conventionally used for the synthesis of various ZnO micro/nanostructures. However, this synthesis procedure often requires the use of an autoclave, which implies high energy consumption and load-bearing requirements. ZnO morphology engineering can also influence the performance of specific applications. Therefore, the synthesis of ZnO micro/nanostructures with morphology engineering under mild conditions, including at room temperature, remains a challenge.
In this work, a facile solution method was developed to prepare ZnO micro/nanostructures at room temperature using precursors containing zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2·6H2O), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and ammonia (NH3·H2O) solution. In particular, the concentration of NH3·H2O plays a crucial role in controlling the reaction rate for morphology engineering [18–19]. Adjustment of the morphology of ZnO micro/nanostructures, from random nanoparticles to regular nanosheets, microflowers, and single crystals, can be achieved. This approach paves a novel means to fabricate ZnO micro/nanostructures under low-cost, mild, and environment-friendly conditions. ZnO microflowers and nanosheets were used in interdigitated-electrode UV detectors. The microflower-based device exhibited high performance and operation stability based on the band structure and three-dimensional light capture.
The raw materials included Zn(NO3)2·6H2O, NaOH, and NH3·H2O solution (25%–28%). Zn(NO3)2·6H2O and NaOH served as sources of Zn2+ and OH–, respectively. NH3·H2O can be combined with Zn2+ to tune the reaction rate on the effect of ZnO product structures. As shown in Fig. 1, 1.16 g Zn(NO3)2·6H2O was dissolved in 130 mL distilled water with stirring typically, and then NH3·H2O solution (1–6 mL) was slowly added to the solution and mixed well to achieve full complexation. During this period, the solution immediately turned turbid and clarified. Next, 0.288 g NaOH was dissolved in 6 mL distilled water completely by ultrasound, which was slowly added dropwise to the above solution under stirring. Finally, the chemical reaction was kept at room temperature 50, 70, and 90°C, respectively. After the reaction, the white precipitates were washed with deionized water and dried at 70°C in an oven overnight.
Flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates were washed with deionized water and ethanol and dried via N2 flow. Then, the Au electrodes were deposited on the flexible PET substrates through thermal evaporation, and the interdigitated 20 fingers (width 100 µm, interfinger spacing 100 µm, and length 10 mm) were patterned by UV lithography. The ZnO powders exhibited dispersion in ethanol, deposition on the interdigitated Au electrodes, and drying at 70°C to form flexible UV detectors.
The phase of the obtained white powders was checked via X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern with Cu-Kα irradiation (λ = 1.5418 Å, Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer). The morphology was characterized via scanning electron microscopy (SEM, FEI NOVA Nano SEM 450) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL/JEM-F200). The UV–visible light absorption was measured using a LAMBDA 1050 spectrometer (PerkinElmer). Regarding the UV detector, the current–voltage (I–V) and current–time (I–t) curves were measured on electrochemical workstation (Model 600E Series). The UV light was originated from a light source (365 nm, ZF-1, Shanghai ChiTang Industrial Co. Ltd).
Fig. 2 shows the XRD patterns of the obtained white precipitates. The diffraction peaks at 31.5°, 34.1°, 36.0°, 47.2°, 56.3°, 62.6°, 67.6°, 68.8°, and 77.0° can be indexed to the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (112), (201), and (202) planes of hexagonal wurtzite ZnO phase (JCPDS No. 36-1451), respectively [18–19]. Evidently, when the NaOH solution was directly added to the Zn(NO3)2·6H2O solution, the white ZnO precipitates formed immediately. In the product XRD pattern, an additional peak was located at 25.83°. If the NH3·H2O solution participated in the reaction, the resulting products also comprised the ZnO phase. The more NH3·H2O added, the lower the recreation rate. Thus, low chemical reaction rate can improve the crystallinity, and thus, with the increase in NH3·H2O amount, the diffraction peak intensities of ZnO products showed a gradual increase.
The chemical reaction can be expressed as follows [18–19]:
| Zn2++NH3↔Zn(NH3)2+x(x=1,2,3,4) | (1) |
| Zn2++4OH−→Zn(OH)2−4 | (2) |
| Zn(OH)2−4→ZnO+H2O+2OH− | (3) |
The synthesis of ZnO precipitates can be divided into three stages. First, Zn2+ ions were combined with NH3 from the NH3·H2O solution to form ion complexes of Zn(NH3)2+x (x = 1, 2, 3, 4). When the NH3·H2O solution was added to the Zn(NO3)2 solution, the solution immediately turned turbid and clarified under rocking. The Zn(NH3)2+x complexes slowly released Zn2+ after the addition of OH− to form Zn(OH)2−4 [20]. Finally, the Zn(OH)2−4 was transferred to the stable ZnO phase. Therefore, the amount of NH3·H2O added can be used to manage the reaction rate of the synthesized ZnO [21]. The increase in NH3·H2O amount led to high degree of complexation, which slowed down the reaction rate of ZnO. In contrast, heating speeds up this release process. Thus, the higher the temperature, the faster the reaction rate.
Room-temperature chemical reactions (about 20°C) offer evident advantages. Typically, the process saves energy and facilitates product generation without requiring high-temperature condition. This provides an idea for mass production in industrialization. In this work, room-temperature reaction was first carried out. The dose of the added NH3·H2O solution was increased from 0 to 6 mL, with a step of 1 mL. The samples synthesized under the NH3·H2O doses from 0 to 4 mL comprised white precipitates. If the NH3·H2O solution increased to 5 mL, the products cannot be obtained immediately, and the reaction consumed a considerable amount of time. After 5 d, millimeter-sized crystals can be evidently observed. In particular, when 6 mL or more NH3·H2O was added, no product can be observed at room temperature. Heating can increase the reaction activity [22–23]. The increase in the temperature may enable the synthesis of ZnO with NH3·H2O addition of 6 mL or more. Dried white precipitates were obtained after the reaction under heat.
SEM and TEM were applied in the investigation of the morphology of ZnO products. Fig. 3 shows the morphology of the ZnO synthesized at room temperature using various amounts of NH3·H2O. In the absence of NH3·H2O, the reaction occurred quickly, which led to the random and aggregated morphology of ZnO nanoparticles (Fig. 3(a)). After the addition of 1 mL NH3·H2O in the reaction, the products also aggregated but assumed sheet shape with microscale surface (Fig. 3(b)). Evident ZnO nanosheets were observed when 2 mL NH3·H2O was used (Fig. 3(c)). With the increase in NH3·H2O to 3 mL (Fig. 3(d)), the nanosheets become more evident and regular with sizes of 3–5 µm. Moreover, the sheets gradually became thinner. On the one hand, the increase in NH3·H2O concentration reduced the reaction rate. On the other hand, stirring the reaction solution provided tangential shear force. Therefore, two-dimensional (2D) ZnO nanosheets can be formed at an appropriate NH3·H2O concentration. When the NH3·H2O added was increased to 4 mL, the nanosheets thickened due to the slow reaction rate (Fig. 3(e)), and the size of the nanosheets decreased to approximately 1 µm. When the NH3·H2O concentration was increased to 5 mL, the reaction rate further slowed down, and the product transformed into macroscopic and millimeter-scale single crystals after 5 d (Fig. 3(f)).
The 2D ZnO nanosheets were also characterized via TEM technology. Fig. 4(a) shows a typical 2D ZnO nanosheet having the polycrystalline characteristics observed from the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) (Fig. 4(b)). The spotted rings corresponded to the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), and (103) lattice planes of hexagonal wurtzite ZnO. The high-resolution TEM image in Fig. 4(c) reveals that the lattice fringes with distances of 0.284 (0.287) and 0.267 nm (0.268 nm) were indexed to the ZnO (100) and (002) planes, respectively. The random domains further conformed to the polycrystalline nature of 2D ZnO nanosheets. To the best of our knowledge, this phenomenon is the first documentation of polycrystalline 2D ZnO nanosheets [24].
Given the presence of the reaction with 6 mL NH3·H2O addition at room temperature, the temperature was set to 50, 70, and 90°C. The required reaction times periods varied with temperature. The reaction times under 50, 70, and 90°C lasted for 48, 24, and 12 h, respectively, with the corresponding SEM images displayed in Fig. 5(a)–(c). All products had microflower morphology, which was composed of nanorods. As the temperature rose to 90°C, some microflowers collapsed as independent nanorods due to the rapid reaction rate. Consequently, moderate temperature aids in attaining more regular morphology.
The reaction rate slowed down with the increased amount of NH3·H2O addition. Moreover, when the NH3·H2O reached 4 mL, the ZnO nanosheets thickened due to the slower reaction rate, and the output of immediately collected ZnO precipitates decreased at room temperature. Thus, when the temperature was set at 70°C, the NH3·H2O amount begin from 4 mL. Fig. 5(d)–(f) shows the SEM images of the ZnO synthesized at 70°C with NH3·H2O addition of 4, 5, and 7 mL, respectively. Fig. 5(d) shows the presence of microflowers and microspheres comprising nanoparticles and nanorods. Regular ZnO microflowers were obtained when the NH3·H2O addition increased to 5 and 6 mL, as shown in Fig. 5(e) and Fig. 5(b), respectively. When it further increased to 7 mL, excessive NH3·H2O led to high-alkaline environment, which destroyed the ZnO products to random aggregation of nanoparticles (Fig. 5(f)).
The ZnO microflowers synthesized using 5 mL NH3·H2O addition at 70°C can accomplish 3D light capture, which enables the efficient absorption of UV light (Fig. S1, see the supplementary material) [25]. The ZnO microflowers were further applied to the UV detector (Fig. 6). Fig. 6(a) shows the I–V curves of the UV detectors in the dark and under 365 nm UV, and Fig. 6(b) displays the amplified dark current. An evident photocurrent of the ZnO UV detectors was observed. The calculated light on/off ratio at 1 V was approximately 50. In addition, the Schottky contacts formed between ZnO microflowers and Au electrodes. Fig. 6(c) shows the switching curve of current in the dark and under UV illumination with a constant bias voltage of 1.0 V. The rising and decaying photocurrents obey the exponential function, which can be fitted with the corresponding time. The two exponential function Eqs. (4) and (5) used for respective rising and decaying photocurrents (It) with the time (t) are expressed as follows [26–27]: The two exponential function Eqs. (4) and (5) used for respective rising and decaying photocurrents (It) with the time (t) are expressed as follows
| It=I0+A1(1−e−tτr1) | (4) |
| It=I0+A2e−tτd1+A3e−tτd2 | (5) |
where I0 denotes the dark current, A1, A2, and A3 indicate positive constants, τr1 and τd (τd1 and τd2) are time constants for rising and decaying photocurrents, respectively. On the basis of curve fittings, the rise time constant for ZnO was τr1 = 21.3 s, and the decay time constants were τd1 = 13.7 s and τd2 = 36.3 s, which are similar to the previous results on ZnO nanowire arrays [26–27]. In addition, the UV sensitivity of 2D ZnO nanosheets was measured (Fig. S2). The photocurrent is lower than that of the microflower-based device. Therefore, the obtained ZnO microflowers can be applied as excellent UV detectors.
ZnO micro/nanostructures were prepared through simple and low-cost hydrothermal method, nearly at room temperature, through the introduction of NH3·H2O solution. The NH3 in NH3·H2O solution combined with the Zn2+ precursor to form complexes, which can be used to tune the reaction rate and influence of the resulting ZnO structures. At a precise amount of NH3·H2O addition, the polycrystalline 2D ZnO nanosheets can be obtained as a result of the stirring-induced tangential shear force at room temperature. Meanwhile, during relatively slow reaction, ZnO single crystals formed after 5 d at room temperature. Heating (such as 70°C) can increase the reaction rate, which leads to 3D microflowers. The ZnO microflowers can effectively capture UV light as detectors. Therefore, this facile and low-cost synthesis method can be applied in tuning ZnO micro/nanostructures and be easily scaled-up for industrial production, which will promote their optoelectronic applications, typically in UV detectors.
This work was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52204412 and U2002212), the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2021YFC1910504), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. FRF-TP-20-031A1).
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