| Cite this article as: |
Anran Zhang, Xinquan Zhou, Ranran Gu, and Zhiguo Xia, Efficient energy transfer from self-trapped excitons to Mn2+ dopants in CsCdCl3:Mn2+ perovskite nanocrystals, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 31(2024), No. 6, pp.1456-1461. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12613-024-2844-5
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Perovskite-type compounds have become known as multifaceted functional materials, and the luminescence of self-trapped excitons (STEs) in metal halide perovskites, as an example, has garnered increasing attention in light-emitting diodes [1], scintillators [2], and sensors [3] due to their advantages of high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY), broadband emission, large Stokes shift, and long fluorescence lifetime. Strong electron–phonon coupling and soft lattice play crucial roles in the generation of STEs [4]. In general, STE emission occurs in low-dimensional metal halides because polyhedral distortions are more likely to occur at low connectivity [5]. Smith et al. [6] were the first to report typical Pb-based low-dimensional hybrid metal halides with broadband STE emission from 400 to 800 nm. Morad et al. [7] reported the fascinating photoluminescence in zero-dimensional (0D) Sb-based hybrid halides. It is also noticed that all-inorganic 0D Cs3Cu2I5 displayed efficient broadband STE emission [8], and the associated synthesis has been extended from microcrystals to nanocrystals (NCs) [9]. However, realizing STE emission in all-inorganic three-dimensional (3D) halides is challenging, except for the reported Cs2AgInCl6 NCs [1]. This is because octahedra are solidly connected via shared corners in 3D halides, which makes lattice distortion difficult [10]. Interestingly, the unique bonding of 3D CsCdCl3 can induce lattice distortion, thus potentially achieving STE emission, as reported elsewhere [11–12].
Extensive research on Mn2+ ions as dopants in several different metal halide NCs can be found in the recent literature [13–14]. Octahedrally coordinated Mn2+ can exhibit long-lived orange-red emission, originating from the spin-forbidden d–d transition. Among various halide NCs, CsPbCl3 NCs with a suitable band gap have become an ideal host for efficient energy transfer from excitons to Mn2+ ions [15–16]. CsCdCl3 is structurally similar to CsPbCl3, but the lattice of CsCdCl3 is easier to distort. Substituting Cd2+ with Mn2+ can further promote the distortion of the CsCdCl3 lattice and facilitate the generation of STEs [10]. In addition, Mn2+ doping can form energy transfer channels from the host STEs to Mn2+ ions, thus exhibiting efficient orange-red emission [17]. Hence, CsCdCl3 NCs were selected as the host for Mn2+ doping to investigate STE emission and the role of STEs in Mn2+ luminescence modulation.
In this study, CsCdCl3 NCs are prepared by a hot-injection method and further doped with Mn2+ to form CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs. CsCdCl3 NCs exhibit blue emission, which is ascribed to the defect states of the NCs. Mn2+ doping promotes the generation of STEs in CsCdCl3 NCs and forms energy transfer channels from STEs to the Mn2+ ion, giving rise to bright orange-red emission in CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs. This work provides alternative strategies for STE emission research in 3D metal halide NCs and optimization of their luminescence performance.
Cesium carbonate (Cs2CO3, 99.9wt%), manganese acetate tetrahydrate (Mn(CH3COO)2·4H2O, analytical pure), oleic acid (OA, analytical pure), oleylamine (OLA, 80wt%–90wt%), octadecene (ODE, >90wt%), benzoyl chloride (BzCl, 98wt%), n-hexane (C6H14, ≥98wt%), and ethyl acetate (C4H8O2, analytical pure) were purchased from Aladdin. Cadmium acetate dihydrate (Cd(CH3COO)2·2H2O, analytical pure) was purchased from Macklin. All chemicals were used without further purification.
Cs2CO3 (0.125 mmol), Cd(CH3COO)2∙2H2O (0.25 mmol), Mn(CH3COO)2∙4H2O (0.05 mmol in general experiments, i.e., the Mn/Cd precursor ratio was 20%. For CsCd1−xCl3:xMn2+ NCs, x = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, and 0.25, and the total amount of Cd(CH3COO)2∙2H2O and Mn(CH3COO)2∙4H2O was 0.25 mmol.), OLA (2 mL), OA (2 mL), and ODE (8 mL) were placed in a 50 mL three-neck flask. The mixed solution was heated to 120°C and degassed by alternating vacuum and N2 for 30 min. Afterward, the mixture was heated to 200°C under N2. Then, 0.4 mL of BzCl was swiftly injected into the flask under vigorous stirring. The reaction was quenched in an ice-water bath after 10 s. The crude solution was centrifuged at 8000 r/min for 5 min. The precipitate fraction was redispersed in 10 mL of n-hexane and centrifuged at 4000 r/min for 3 min, leaving the supernatant. After that, the NCs were precipitated with 30 mL of ethyl acetate by centrifugating at 8000 r/min for 5 min. Finally, half of the precipitate was dispersed in n-hexane and the other half was dried in an oven to make into powder for the following use.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) was conducted using an Aeris XRD instrument (PANalytical, Netherlands) at 40 kV and 15 mA with monochromatized Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å) and linear VANTEC detector. The samples were prepared by dissolving the NCs in n-hexane and dropping the concentrated solutions onto a silicon substrate. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were performed using a JEM-2010 instrument at 120 kV and equipped with an energy-dispersive detector. The samples for TEM analysis were prepared by dropping dilute NC solutions onto 300 mesh copper grids coated with ultrathin carbon film. Room-temperature photoluminescence excitation (PLE), photoluminescence (PL), and time-resolved PL (TRPL) spectra were collected using an FLS1000 fluorescence spectrophotometer (Edinburgh Instruments Ltd., U.K.). Temperature-dependent spectra were recorded on the same spectrophotometer equipped with the cryogenic liquid nitrogen plant equipment. PLQYs were determined via an absolute PL quantum yield spectrometer (Quantaurus-QY Plus C13534-11, Hamamatsu Photonics). All optical measurements were conducted on NC powders in ambient conditions.
Perovskite-type CsCdCl3 crystallizes into a hexagonal structure (space group P63/mmc) with [Cd2Cl9]5− subunits sharing corners with [CdCl6]4− octahedra (Fig. 1(a)). The distinct symmetries of Cd endow the structure with two types of symmetry, D3d and C3v [12,18]. The dopant Mn2+ ions are supposed to substitute the octahedral Cd2+ sites. As illustrated in Fig. 1(b), Mn2+-doped CsCdCl3 NCs are synthesized via a modified hot-injection method [19]. As described in the Experimental Section, precursors (Cs carbonate and Cd, Mn acetates) are dissolved in ODE with OA and OLA. When the system is heated to 200°C, rapid injection of BzCl can trigger the nucleation and growth of the NCs. The Mn2+ doping concentration in CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs is 20% (molar ratio of the precursor), and all analyses are based on the samples with this concentration. The XRD pattern demonstrates pure-phase NCs (not easy to form impurities like Cs2CdCl4 and Cs3Cd2Cl7) (Fig. 1(c)). After Mn2+ doping, the diffraction peak at 23.98° shifts slightly toward higher angles, which can be ascribed to lattice contraction induced by the substitution of Cd2+ (Radius, r = 0.95 Å; coordination number, CN = 6) with smaller Mn2+ (r = 0.83 Å, CN = 6), showing the successful doping of Mn2+ in the CsCdCl3 lattice.
In the TEM images, CsCdCl3 and CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs present distorted square-like morphologies with similar mean sizes of (10.1 ± 1.5) and (10.8 ± 1.8) nm, respectively (Fig. 2(a) and (b)). The HRTEM images in Fig. 2(c) and (d) clearly show the lattice fringes of the NCs, verifying their high crystallinity. The interplanar spacings (3.66 and 3.63 Å) correspond to the (110) planes. Further EDS elemental mapping of CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs reveals the homogeneous distribution of Cs, Cd, Cl, and Mn in the NCs (Fig. 2(e)).
The optical properties of undoped CsCdCl3 and Mn2+-doped CsCdCl3 NCs were studied as a comparison. In Fig. 3(a), when excited at 365 nm (λex), CsCdCl3 NCs display blue emission at 441 nm (λem) with a PLQY of 8.6%. Given the asymmetric emission band and the fact that no such blue emission has been observed in reported CsCdCl3 crystals [20–21], we propose the emission is not inherent to CsCdCl3. The decay behavior of the 441 nm emission can be well fitted by a single exponential function with a short lifetime (τ) of 5.78 ns. Based on these results, the blue emission can be assigned to the defect states or surface states of CsCdCl3 NCs [22–24]. Besides the above blue emission, when excited at 265 nm, CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs display orange-red emission at 656 nm with full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of 113 nm and PLQY of 11.1% (Fig. 3(b)). Combined with the excitation spectrum, the main peak of this emission can be attributed to the Mn2+ d–d transition (4T1 → 6A1) [25]. It is noted that this orange-red emission peak has a relatively large FWHM and imperfect symmetry, implying the possible presence of additional emission centers. In Fig. 3(c) below, the decay curve of the emission can be well fitted by a biexponential function with a short lifetime of 0.24 ms and a long lifetime of 0.94 ms. The fast decay indicates STE emission resulting from lattice distortion after Mn2+ doping, which will be discussed in detail later. The slow component indicates the spin-forbidden transition of Mn2+ (4T1 → 6A1), as found in other systems [26–27].
To further elucidate the luminescence mechanism of CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs, temperature-dependent steady-state and transient-state PL spectra were recorded and compared. CsCdCl3 NCs exhibit blue emission at 80 K when excited at 365 nm, which arises from the previously discussed defect states or surface states of NCs. Notably, under 265 nm excitation at 80 K, CsCdCl3 NCs show broadband emission (FWHM = 155 nm) in the 400–700 nm range, which agrees with the attributes of STE emission (Fig. 3(d)). As stated above, the octahedron with C3v symmetry is slightly distorted, leading to STE emission [10,28]. The emission in the NCs is not as pronounced as that in the crystals at room temperature [29] but can be easily observed at low temperatures [30]. Mn2+ doping further promotes CsCdCl3 lattice distortion, allowing the observation of STE emission from low to room temperature. In Fig. 3(e), the PL peak is asymmetric, with a tail in the 500–600 nm range. Moreover, the improved PL intensity and prolonged PL lifetime with decreasing temperature can be ascirbed to suppressed nonradiative relaxation (Fig. 3(e) and (f)).
The PLE spectra of CsCd1−xCl3:xMn2+ NCs (x = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, and 0.25) under various optimum emission wavelengths are displayed in Fig. 4(a). The excitation peaks in the 250–270 nm range are associated with the charge transfer band (CTB) of Cl− → Mn2+. The narrow excitation bands in the 330–450 nm range are assigned to the d–d transitions of the Mn2+ ion. Specifically, the peaks at 330, 360, 380, and 420 nm correspond to the 6A1 → 4T1(4P), 6A1 → 4E(4D), 6A1 → 4T2(4D), and 6A1 → 4A1(4G)/4E(4G) transitions of the Mn2+ ion, respectively [29]. With increasing Mn2+ concentration, the CTB shows a slight blue shift, and the intensity of Mn2+-related excitation peaks increases. As depicted in Fig. 4(b), the PL spectra of CsCd1−xCl3:xMn2+ NCs with increasing Mn2+ concentration show that the STE emission is gradually weakened, and the emission mainly manifests as the characteristic emission of Mn2+ ions. On the other hand, the emission peaks display a red shift from 650 to 667 nm with narrow FWHMs. Given that both STE and Mn2+ emissions are excited at 265 nm, the bright orange-red emission of the Mn2+-doped NCs most likely originates from an efficient energy transfer from STEs to the energy levels of the Mn2+ ion, which is consistent with other studies [10,12,31]. Notably, the STE emission band is more easily observed at low doping concentrations. In Fig. 4(c), two Gaussian peaks can be well fitted to the spectral profile. The 577 nm peak can be assigned to STE emission, while the 657 nm peak can be assigned to Mn2+ d–d transition. These results imply that there are two luminescence mechanisms in CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs, as illustrated in Fig. 4(d). Excitons under 265 nm excitation are trapped by shallow defects proximal to the conduction band. These excitons, due to thermal perturbations, can be rereleased and subsequently undergo recombination (STE emission at 577 nm) or be captured by Mn2+ dopants. The captured excitons will relax to the lowest excited state (4T1) and then undergo the radiative transition from 4T1 to 6A1, resulting in bright orange-red emission at 657 nm. In the process, Mn2+ doping promotes CsCdCl3 lattice distortion and the generation of STEs. The energy transfer from STEs to Mn2+ enables efficient luminescence of Mn2+ ions and large Stokes shift.
In summary, CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs are successfully synthesized via a hot-injection method. The blue emission at 441 nm of undoped CsCdCl3 NCs can be assigned to the defect states of the NCs. Mn2+ doping further promotes CsCdCl3 lattice distortion, facilitating the generation of STEs. Mn2+-doped CsCdCl3 NCs display bright orange-red emission at 656 nm. The obtained results revealed that the energy transfer from the STEs of CsCdCl3 to the energy levels of the Mn2+ ion is a significant factor in realizing efficient luminescence in CsCdCl3:Mn2+ NCs. This work extends the research on STE emission in 3D metal halide NCs and provides useful approaches to improving the luminescence performance of metal halide NCs.
This work was supported by the Guangdong Provincial Science & Technology Project (No. 2023A0505050084), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 22361132525), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 2023ZYGXZR002), and the Local Innovative and Research Teams Project of Guangdong Pearl River Talents Program (No. 2017BT01X137).
Zhiguo Xia is an editorial board member for this journal and was not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this article. The authors declare no potential conflict of interest.
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