Xuchen Jin, Peihao Ye, Hongrui Ji, Zhuanxia Suo, Boxin Wei, Xuewen Li, and Wenbin Fang, Oxidation resistance of powder metallurgy Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy at high temperature, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 29(2022), No. 12, pp. 2232-2240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-021-2320-4
Cite this article as:
Xuchen Jin, Peihao Ye, Hongrui Ji, Zhuanxia Suo, Boxin Wei, Xuewen Li, and Wenbin Fang, Oxidation resistance of powder metallurgy Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy at high temperature, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 29(2022), No. 12, pp. 2232-2240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-021-2320-4
Research Article

Oxidation resistance of powder metallurgy Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy at high temperature

+ Author Affiliations
  • Corresponding author:

    Xuewen Li    E-mail: lixuewen@hrbust.edu.cn

  • Received: 4 March 2021Revised: 29 March 2021Accepted: 22 June 2021Available online: 24 June 2021
  • TiAl alloy with high Nb content, nominally Ti–45Al–10Nb, was prepared by powder metallurgy, and the oxidation resistance at 850, 900, and 950°C was investigated. The high-temperature oxidation-resistance mechanism and oxidation dynamics were discussed following the oxide skin morphology and microstructural evolution analysis. The oxide skin structures were similar for 850 and 900°C, with TiO2+Al2O3 mixture covering TiO2 with dispersed Nb2O5. At 950°C, the oxide skin was divided into four sublayers, from the outside to the parent metal: loose TiO2+Al2O3, dense Al2O3, dense TiO2+Nb2O5, and TiO2 matrix with dispersed Nb2O5. The Nb layer suppressed the outward diffusion of Ti atoms, hindering the growth of TiO2, and simultaneously promote the formation of a continuous Al2O3 protective layer, providing the alloy with long-term high-temperature oxidation resistance.
  • TiAl-based alloys have excellent physical, mechanical, and chemical properties compared with traditional high-temperature alloys or Ti alloys: lower density, higher strength, excellent creep resistance, better oxidation resistance at high temperatures, etc. [18]. They are widely used in high-temperature components of automobiles and aero-engines, such as high-pressure compressor blades, exhaust valves, turbocharged turbine blades, and more [910]. However, the current bottlenecks for TiAl-based alloys include (1) low ductility and formability at room temperature, (2) poor wear resistance at high temperature, and (3) poor oxidation resistance at high temperature. Specifically, the oxidation resistance severely declines when the service temperature exceeds 850°C. Much research has been conducted to overcome these problems. The room temperature plasticity was significantly improved through alloying and microstructure tailoring [1112], yet the low high-temperature oxidation resistance remains a major issue. At present, there are mainly two approaches: (1) bulk alloying: the addition of specific elements to improve the oxidation resistance; (2) surface modification: coating with a protective layer or surface alloying [1316].

    Although TiAl-based alloy has a higher aluminum content, it cannot form a pure Al2O3 protective layer. Meanwhile, TiO2 is a fast-growing oxide that cannot provide quasi-isothermal oxidation protection [1719]. Previous research has found that TiAl alloy oxide comprises a layered structure, namely a TiO2-rich layer, a Al2O3-rich layer, and a TiO2–Al2O3 mixture layer [20]. When the heterogeneous mixture layer forms on the matrix surface, oxygen ions can migrate along phase boundaries within the TiO2 phase, leading to the thickening of the oxide composite. This structure is loosely bonded to the matrix, deteriorating the high-temperature oxidation resistance of the alloy beyond 800°C. Many studies have shown that Nb alloying is the most economical and efficient way to compensate for this issue compared to other elements [2124].

    Thus, TiAl alloy with high Nb content was prepared by powder metallurgy method in this paper, and its high temperature oxidation behavior at 850, 900, and 950°C was studied. The longest oxidation time was 192 h. The surface morphology, phase composition, oxide profile morphology, and oxidation kinetics of the alloy oxide layer were studied. Based on the above studies, we explored the direct relationship between Nb alloying and the high temperature oxidation resistance of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy.

    High purity Ti powders (99.5% purity, ~44 μm), Al powders (99.7% purity, ~47 μm), and Nb powders (99.9% purity, ~44 μm) were sintered. After adding stearic acid with a powder mass of 1wt% as a process inhibitor, mechanical ball milling and mixing were performed under argon shielding. Stainless steel grinding balls for bearings with 10 mm diameter were selected at a 15:1 ball-to-material volume ratio. The required Ti–45Al–10Nb composite powder was obtained by grinding at 250 r/min for 10 h. The powder was then consolidated by a hot-press sintering process (1200–1350°C/10–50 MPa/2–6 h/5°C·min−1 heating rate) under a 10−3 Pa vacuum. Before isothermal forging, the sintered billet was subjected to homogenization heat treatment (1350°C/2 h/air cooling). A ϕ30 mm × 35 mm cylindrical sample was cut from the billet by electrical discharge machining (EDM). The billet was isothermally forged to 70% at 1250°C. Finally, the isothermally forged ingot was held at 900°C for 6 h for stress relief annealing. The ingot was cut into strips (10 mm × 10 mm× 4 mm) with EDM, and the sample was ground with 800# sandpaper, polished, and ultrasonically cleaned with alcohol and acetone.

    The quasi-isothermal oxidation experiment at constant temperature was carried out in a high-temperature resistance furnace with a temperature control accuracy of ±1°C. The medium was still air, and the oxidation temperature was 850, 900, and 950°C. The samples were taken out after oxidation for 24, 48, 96, and 192 h. After cooling, the samples were weighed on a TG-238A analytical balance (±0.1 mg), and the mass variation was fitted with the parabolic rate law to determine the mass growth exponent n and the rate constant kn.

    It was stored for subsequent analysis. The phase compositions and morphologies of the initial and oxidized sample were analyzed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in the backscatter electron (BSE) mode coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results were further validated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

    Fig. 1 shows the microstructure, grain size, and EDS test results of the isothermally forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy. Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy was analyzed by XRD, and the XRD pattern was shown in Fig. 2. Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy was composed of α2-Ti3Al, γ-TiAl, and Ti2AlC phases by combining EDS and XRD results. The carbon in Ti2AlC phase came from stearic acid, which was the process controlling agent during the ball milling. The Ti2AlC particles are not uniformly distributed in the α2+γ matrix. Fig. 1(d)–(f) presents the grain size distribution of the overview, the Ti2AlC-rich regions, and the Ti2AlC-free regions, respectively. The microstructure of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy was mainly fine equiaxed grain with an overall mean size of 9.1 μm. The average grain size in the Ti2AlC-rich region was 7.2 μm, and that in the Ti2AlC-free region was 9.5 μm. The grain size of the Ti2AlC-rich region is smaller than that of the Ti2AlC-free region, but the difference in grain size is not significant.

    Fig. 1.  Microstructure of powder metallurgy (PM) Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy: (a) overview in SEM, (b) Ti2AlC-rich region, and (c) Ti2AlC-free region. Grain sizes distribution of the (d) overview, (e) Ti2AlC-rich region, and (f) Ti2AlC-free region. Energy spectrums at point A (g), point B (h), and point C (i) in (a).
    Fig. 2.  XRD patterns of PM Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy

    The microstructure of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy was further characterized by TEM, as shown in Fig. 3. The phases contents of α2-Ti3Al, γ-TiAl, and Ti2AlC were also confirmed by electron diffraction analysis.

    Fig. 3.  TEM images of typical microstructures of PM Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy: (a) Ti2AlC grain; (b) α2-Ti3Al grains and γ-TiAl grains. The insert in (a) shows the selected area diffraction patterns of Ti2AlC, and the zone axis (Z.A.) is ${\boldsymbol{ [\bar{1}2\bar{1}0] }}$. The insert in the lower left corner of (b) shows the selected area diffraction pattern of α2-Ti3Al, and the Z.A. is ${\boldsymbol{[\bar{1}2\bar{1}0] }}$. The inset in the upper right corner of (b) shows the selected area diffraction patterns of γ-TiAl, and the Z.A. is ${\boldsymbol{[\bar{1}21]}}$.

    Fig. 4 shows the macroscopic appearances of the Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy sample after oxidizing at 850, 900, and 950°C for various durations. The tone of the oxide film gradually changed from dark gray to light yellow as the duration or temperature increased, which was due to the diffusion of oxygen ions and alloying elements, and the resultant oxide film thickened with higher temperature or diffusion time. Under all three temperatures, the oxide skin was stilled attached to the parent alloy even after 192 h, indicating the outstanding high-temperature oxidation resistance of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy.

    Fig. 4.  Macroscopic morphology of Ti–45Al–10Nb after quasi-isothermal oxidation for different durations.

    Fig. 5 shows the XRD diffraction spectra of the oxide scales on Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy after isothermal oxidation at different temperatures for different times. According to the XRD patterns, the diffraction peaks for different temperatures or time spans are essentially the same, suggesting that the oxidation products were produced, mainly TiO2 and Al2O3 phases. The variation of diffraction peaks is similar. At the initial stage of oxidation, a large number of diffraction peaks of TiAl and Ti3Al phases can be observed, and the diffraction peak intensities of TiO2 and Al2O3 phases are similar. This indicates that the oxide film was relatively thin at the initial stage of oxidation, and the content of TiO2 and Al2O3 was similar. With the increase of oxidation time, the diffraction peak intensities of TiAl and Ti3Al phases decreased greatly, and the diffraction peak intensities of TiO2 phase were higher than that of Al2O3 phase. This shows that with the progress of oxidation, the oxide film was gradually thickened, covering the whole collective layer, and TiO2 phase dominated the surface of the oxide film. XRD did not detect any Nb2O5, indicating that Nb did not diffused to the outer layer of the oxide.

    Fig. 5.  XRD diffraction spectra of the oxide films on Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy after isothermal oxidation at different temperatures for different times:(a) 850°C; (b)900°C; (c) 950°C.

    Fig. 6 shows the SEM images of the oxide scales on Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy after oxidation at 850, 900, and 950°C for different time durations. According to the images, at the early stage of the oxidation, two different oxides with different morphologies were found on the surface: many randomly shaped clusters and occasional columnar oxides. With increased time and temperature, the columnar oxide gradually took over and completely covered the entire metal surface.

    Fig. 6.  SEM micrographs of the surface morphologies of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloys after different quasi-isothermal oxidation.

    The sample oxidized for 24 h at 850°C was selected to analyze the two types of oxide since the colonies of each type could be sharply distinguished, as shown in Fig. 7(a). The two types of oxides were subjected to EDS analysis, and the results are shown in Table 1. The protruding irregular clusters were mainly comprised of Al2O3, and the columnar oxides were TiO2. Fig. 7(b) shows the surface morphology of the oxide scales on Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy after oxidation for 48 h at 900°C. The columnar oxides had a large variation in sizes, so EDS was performed for large and small grains (points 3 and 4 in Fig. 7(b) and Table 1), and the two grains were both TiO2. Combined with the SEM image, it was observed that Al2O3 is rapidly generated in the early oxidation stage, significantly outnumbering TiO2. As oxidation continued, the Al2O3 content gradually decreases, and TiO2 particles gradually took over, originating the outermost layer of the oxide film. There were gaps between large TiO2 particles, indicating the relatively poor high-temperature oxidation resistance of the outermost layer of the oxide.

    Fig. 7.  Morphologies of outer oxide layer of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy under two conditions: (a) 850°C, 24 h; (b) 900°C, 48 h.
    Table 1.  Chemical compositions of various positions in Fig. 7
    PositionTi / at%Al / at%Nb / at%O / at%Phases
    Region A24.7329.174.9741.13TiO2+Al2O3
    Point 116.4133.884.6645.05Al2O3
    Point 239.7618.965.3935.89TiO2
    Region B37.737.9913.8040.48TiO2
    Point 343.784.9616.0743.78TiO2
    Point 444.929.4108.7436.93TiO2
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    According to energy spectrum analysis, the Nb content was low in the large TiO2, high in smaller particles. In other words, Nb limited the growth of TiO2, and the growth was mainly lateral. A similar effect was observed by Taniguchi et al. [25].

    The order of oxide formation during oxidation is related to the formation free energy and growth activation energy. Kovács et al. [26] investigated the formation of TiO2 and Al2O3 and found that although both phases have relatively high negative free energy, the free energy of Al2O3 is lower and hence must form before TiO2 during oxidation. Since the growth activation energy of Al2O3 (502.4 kJ/mol) is higher than that of TiO2 (59.5 kJ/mol) [2729], the growth rate of TiO2 is greater than Al2O3. The current observations are in excellent agreement with previous results, where the oxide layer mainly generates Al2O3 in the early, then switched to TiO2 in the subsequent oxidation.

    Fig. 8 shows the isothermal mass variation of the forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy in static air at 850, 900, and 950°C. The mass of as-forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy exhibited parabolic growth with increasing time. The oxidation temperature is directly proportional to the oxidation rate, and a higher temperature leads to a more intense oxidation reaction. At 850 and 900°C, the area mass gain presented a steady rise with longer durations. At 950°C, explosive growth occurred at the early stage of the oxidation, but the total mass plateaued after 96 h. After 192 h, the area mass gain were 2.1, 4.2, and 6.0 mg/cm2, for 850, 900, and 950°C, respectively. According to the HB5258-2000 standard, the forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy belongs to the complete oxidation resistance level at the three tested temperatures.

    Fig. 8.  High-temperature oxidation kinetic curve of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy.

    The oxidation kinetic curves in these three states all follow the parabolic oxidation law and satisfy the equation:

    $$ \mathrm{\Delta }{M}^{n}={k}_{n}t $$ (1)

    where ΔM is the mass gain from oxidation per square centimeter (mg/cm2), t is the oxidation time (h), $ {k}_{n} $ is the parabolic rate constant (mg2·cm−4·h−1). Table 2 shows the isothermal oxidation dynamic parameters of the as-forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy at 850, 900, and 950°C. It can be seen from the table that as the temperature increased, the exponent n decreased, and so was $ {k}_{n} $ indicating substantial increase of the oxidation rate with temperature attributed to the accelerated diffusion. Such behavior is a primary limitation on the high-temperature anti-oxidation performance of the alloy.

    Table 2.  Kinetic parameters of isothermal oxidation of PM Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy
    Temperature / °COxidation kinetic equationOxidation time t / h
    850$ \Delta {M}^{2.73}=5.74\times {10}^{-5}t $0–192
    900$ \Delta {M}^{2.28}=5.86\times {10}^{-5}t $0–192
    950$ \Delta {M}^{2.14}=9.46\times {10}^{-4}t $0–192
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Through the measured results, the forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy had a lower high-temperature oxidation rate, and its mass gain rate was equal or better than that of Ni and Fe-based heat-resistant alloys in the literature [30].

    Fig. 9 shows the BSE result of the oxide layer cross-section of forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy after oxidation at 850, 900, and 950°C for 192 h. Higher temperatures resulted in thicker oxide films. 850, 900, and 950°C yielded total thicknesses of 25, 36, and 65 μm, respectively. The contrast in the figure indicated that 850 and 900°C produced similar oxide layers, which can be divided into two subregions (I and II in Fig. 10(a) and (b)). For 950°C, the oxide layer had four regions (Ⅰ, II, III, and IV in Fig. 10(c)).

    Fig. 9.  Cross scale images of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy oxidized at different conditions: (a)850°C/192 h; (b) 900°C/192 h; (c) 950°C/192 h.
    Fig. 10.  Cross section of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloys oxidized at 900°C for different time: (a) 24 h; (b) 48 h; (c) 96 h; (d) 192 h.

    EDS line scan was performed along the white line segments in Fig. 9. The primary elements were Ti, Al, Nb, and O. Ti appeared throughout the entire oxide layer, Al was mainly presented in layer I, and Nb was mainly distributed in layer II. Oxygen mostly existed in layer I and the white phase-rich region. EDS and XRD suggested layer Ⅰ mainly comprised TiO2 and Al2O3. These two phases formed continuous, relatively dense layers, and the TiO2 layer was significantly thicker. Layer II had discrete Nb2O5+TiO2 pellets dispersed in the matrix, and the Nb2O5+TiO2 volume fraction increased near the layer I–II interface. It is considered that at 850°C, the thick TiO2 layer in layer Ⅰ was mainly formed by the outward diffusion of Ti ions, while the inner Al2O3 layer was grown by the inward diffusion of oxygen ions. Because of the permeability of Al2O3 to Ti ions and oxygen ions, the TiO2 outer layer continued to grow.

    Fig. 10 shows the the microstructure of the sample after oxidized at 900°C for various durations. The thickness of the oxide layer gradually increased with time, resulting in mean thicknesses of 18, 42, 50, and 85 μm after 24, 48, 96, and 192 h, respectively. The Nb-rich layer also thickened with extended oxidation time, reaching 8, 20, 32, and 43 μm, respectively.

    Nb played a crucial role in the formation of the oxide layer. First, when the Nb-rich region was relatively thin, TiO2 was visible (24 h); when the oxidation process continued, the Nb-rich region expanded and formed a dense layer on the matrix surface, while the volume fraction of Al2O3 in the adjacent layer near the interface grew simultaneously. This eventually lead to the formation of a continuous, dense Nb-rich layer and a Al2O3-layer, indicating that Nb promoted the formation of a neighboring Al2O3 layer which inhibited the diffusion of the Ti to the surface of the matrix, and the diffustion of oxygen ions to the interior of the composite. Furthermore, the oxide is more tightly bond to the matrix, preventing further oxidation upon falling. Ergo, Nb acted as a good anti-oxidation agent at high temperatures.

    As shown in Fig. 9(c), after 192 h oxidation at 950°C, Ti mainly distributed in layer I, III, and IV, Al in layer II, and Nb in layer III. Little Nb was found in layer IV, suggesting its diffusion. Oxygen was mainly found in layer I and II, which corresponded to high concentrations of Ti and Al. Although the credibility of EDS is usually poor for elements lighter than Na, the sharp oxygen content gradient can still reflect the excellent oxidation resistance of the sample. To sum up, layer I was a loose mixture of TiO2 and Al2O3, with micropores at TiO2 and Al2O3 junction. Such structure can trace back to the crystal structure of TiO2, an n-type compound with strong disorder characteristics with main defects of oxygen vacancies and interstitial Ti ions. Consequently, this layer was given poor adhesion, loose structure, and poor oxidation resistance. Layer II consisted of a dense Al2O3 layer with an average thickness of 10 μm, and layer III was continuous, dense TiO2+Nb2O5 with a high Nb content. Nb2O5 is easily doped with TiO2 and generally exists in the form of Nb5+. Nb2O5 can exist independently when the Nb content exceeds a critical value. Layer IV was a matrix with dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5.

    It is worth noting that the Al2O3 and TiO2+Nb2O5 layers were thicker and denser for 950°C compared with 850 and 900°C for the same period, and there was no defective TiO2 layer between Al2O3 and TiO2+Nb2O5. This was mainly because the addition of Nb weakened the bonding of Al with other atoms and improved the bonding between Ti with other metal atoms, thus inhibiting the outward diffusion of Ti, which improved the relative outward diffusivity of Al, promoting a continuous and compact Al2O3 oxide film on the surface of the matrix [31]. At the same time, Nb5+ in forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy can occupy the position of Ti4+, generating TiO2 [32]. Niobium greatly reduces the concentration of oxygen through charge neutralization, leading to the growth of loose TiO2. The appearance of this oxide layer structure proved that the forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy had excellent high-temperature oxidation resistance at 950°C.

    Fig. 11 shows the thickness variations of the oxide layer and the Nb-rich layer after oxidizing for different oxidation time at 900°C. The increased Nb content suppressed the growth of the oxide layer because Nb can effectively prevent Ti from diffusing to the surface and form TiO2. It also promoted the growth of the Al2O3 protective layer [22,33]. This result further consolidated the importance of Nb as an anti-oxidation agent for TiAl-based alloys at high temperatures, in agreement with research conducted by Yoshihara and Miura [22].

    Fig. 11.  The thicknesses of the oxide layer and Nb-rich region at different time.

    Schematics summarising the oxidation mechanisms of the samples are shown in Fig. 12. Treatment with 850 and 900°C yielded similar products, and their ionic migration is shown in Fig. 12(a). Ti and Al both diffused outward, and oxygen ions diffused inward. Ti and Al formed TiO2 and Al2O3 with oxygen ions nearly simultaneously. Although Al2O3 was easier to form, the growth rate of TiO2 was higher, and there were many gaps between TiO2, so TiO2 formed the outermost loose oxide layer. With the formation of the Al2O3 layer, Al atoms on the surface of the TiAl matrix were gradually consumed. Interior Al atoms diffused rather slowly in the TiAl matrix, so they hardly reached the surface to supplement the consumed Al. Therefore, an Al2O3 thin layer is formed under the TiO2 layer. The Ti concentration gradually increased in the Al2O3 layer, and when it reached a critical value, Ti reacted with the oxygen diffusing inward to form TiO2. At the same time, because the formation free energy of Nb2O5 was less than that of Al2O3 or TiO2 [34], it formed beneath the oxide layer. The diffused oxygen ions combined with the internal Nb and Ti to form a dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5 layer. Nb significantly decreased the activity of Ti and increased Al diffusivity, resulting in the formation of a thin Al2O3 layer outside the TiO2+Nb2O5 layer. Therefore, in this stage, the oxide layer mainly comprised loose Al2O3+TiO2 and dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5 layers.

    Fig. 12.  Schematic diagram of oxidation layer formation of forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy: (a) 850°C and 900°C; (b) 950°C.

    For oxidation at 950°C (Fig. 12(b)), the inner Ti and Al continuously diffused to the surface, resulting in a loose TiO2+Al2O3 layer in the outermost oxide layer. Because TiO2 was formed faster than Al2O3, the bottom of the layer had little Ti content and appeared as a separate Al2O3 sublayer. With the internal diffusion of oxygen ions, oxygen ions reacted with Al, and dense Al2O3 gradually covered the entire second layer, hindering the outward diffusion of Ti and the inward diffusion of oxygen. Nb aggregates bonded with the oxygen ions in the Al2O3 layer, reducing the oxygen concentration via charge neutralization, which inhibited the growth of internal loose TiO2 and formed a dense Nb2O5 layer, which further prevented the diffusion of Ti to the external layer. At this stage, the oxide layer was mainly composed of loose TiO2+Al2O3, dense Al2O3, TiO2, and dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5 layers.

    A forged Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy was synthesized by powder metallurgy process and isothermal forging process. The samples were oxidized isothermally at 850, 900, and 950°C in still air for various durations. The following conclusions were drawn regarding the high-temperature oxidation resistance of the material.

    (1) The oxidation dynamics of Ti–45Al–10Nb alloy at 850, 900, and 950°C conformed to the parabolic law, and they were all fully oxidation resistant at the tested temperatures.

    (2) After high-temperature oxidation, the oxide layer structures for 850 and 900°C were similar, with two sublayers of TiO2–Al2O3 mixture and dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5, respectively. At 950°C, the oxide layer had four distinct regions, from outside to inside: a loosely mixed region of TiO2 and Al2O3, a continuous and dense Al2O3 layer, a continuous and dense high Nb content TiO2+Nb2O5 layer, and a matrix of dispersed TiO2+Nb2O5 layer.

    (3) Nb facilitated the formation of Al2O3 and hindered the inward diffusion of oxygen. The Nb-rich TiO2+Nb2O5 layer effectively prevented the internal Ti from diffusing outward, thereby inhibiting the generation of TiO2 and reducing the thickness of the oxide layer. Nb provided better high-temperature oxidation resistance for TiAl-based alloys.

    This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51704088), the Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province of China (No. YQ2020E030), and the Young Innovative Talents Training Plan of Heilongjiang Province, China (No. UNPYSCT-2017084).

    The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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    [3]Jinfang Wang, Meng Zhang, Sheng Dai, et al. Research Progress in Electrospark Deposition Coatings on Titanium Alloy Surfaces: A Short Review. Coatings, 2023, 13(8): 1473. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13081473
    [4]Qizhou Cai, Can Xu, Xu Chen, et al. Effect of Mn and Mo on the microstructure and electrical resistivity of Ti-Al alloy prepared by mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2023, 947: 169608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.169608

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