Omnidirectional annealing process for scalable perovskite films

Halide perovskites are promising photovoltaic materials due to the outstanding photoelectric properties and low-cost solution process; however, the low scalability and reproducibility of perovskite films hinder the commercialization. Liquid medium annealing (LMA) method has provided a robust liquid environment and an omnidirectional heating field to modulate the growth of perovskite films for high quality with low defect density, desirable stoichiometry, high homogeneity, and less environmental influence. The fabricated perovskite solar cells exhibited excellent reproducibility and power conversion efficiencies exceeding 24.04% with 0.08 cm² area and 23.15% with 1 cm² area.