Recent progress in the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils: A short review

Qiuyan Shen, Yongxing Ba, Peng Zhang, Jiangfeng Song, Bin Jiang, and Fusheng Pan, Recent progress in the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils: A short review, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 31(2024), No. 5, pp.842-854. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12613-024-2846-3

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Invited Review

Recent progress in the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils: A short review

Qiuyan Shen^{1, 2)},
Yongxing Ba^{1, 2)},
Peng Zhang^{1, 2)},
Jiangfeng Song^{1, 2, 3), ,},
Bin Jiang^{1, 2, 3)} and
Fusheng Pan^{1, 2, 3), ,}

Author Affilications

1)
National Engineering Research Center for Magnesium Alloys, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
2)
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
3)
National Key Laboratory of Advanced Casting Technologies, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

Corresponding author:
Jiangfeng Song E-mail: jiangfeng.song@cqu.edu.cn

Fusheng Pan E-mail: fspan@cqu.edu.cn
Received: 14 October 2023; Revised: 19 January 2024; Accepted: 03 February 2024; Available Online: 05 February 2024

Graphical Abstract

Abstract

Abstract

Magnesium and magnesium alloy foils have great potential for application in battery anodes, electromagnetic shielding, optics and acoustics, and biology because of their excellent specific damping, internal dissipation coefficients, magnetic and electrical conductivities, as well as high theoretical specific capacity. However, magnesium alloys exhibit poor deformation ability due to their hexagonal close-packed crystal structure. Preparing magnesium and magnesium alloy foils with thicknesses of less than 0.1 mm is difficult because of surface oxidation and grain growth at high temperatures or severe anisotropy after cold rolling that leads to cracks. Numerous methods have been applied to prepare magnesium alloy foils. They include warm rolling, cold rolling, accumulative roll bonding, electric plastic rolling, and on-line heating rolling. Defects of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils during preparation, such as edge cracks and breakage, are important factors for consideration. Herein, the current status of the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils is summarized from the aspects of foil preparation, defect control, performance characterization, and application prospects. The advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods and defect (edge cracks and breakage) mechanisms in the preparation of foils are identified.
- magnesium alloy foil,
- rolling,
- defect,
- performance,
- application

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1. Introduction

Magnesium alloy has low density, high specific strength, light weight, and excellent damping and electromagnetic shielding properties and has been widely used in the automotive, rail transportation, aerospace, defense, military industries, and other fields [1–4]. Additionally, magnesium and magnesium alloy sheets have been increasingly used in the automotive field, precision instrumentation components, audio vibration films, and etching sheets [5–8]. Although the use of magnesium alloy sheets with thicknesses of 0.5–0.8 mm in mobile phones and notebook shells has achieved remarkable results, considerable difficulties remain in the preparation of magnesium alloy ultrathin sheets and foils for use in audio products and other fields. Therefore, the research and development of magnesium alloy ultrathin sheets and foils has become a concern of many researchers.

Magnesium and magnesium alloy foils have great potential as biomaterials and for application in other areas, such as electromagnetic shielding, optics, and acoustics, because of their excellent properties. In addition, they have great potential for applications in magnesium batteries as dry, air, and fuel cells and rechargeable magnesium batteries (RMBs) [9–11]. However, the corrosion rates of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils increase during battery discharge/charge [12–14]. Yang et al. [15] found that microalloying magnesium alloys with rare earth elements is an economical and promising way to improve corrosion resistance. In addition, a few studies have demonstrated that changing rolling and heat treatment methods is the main approach for improving mechanical properties [16–17]. The scarcity of research on the properties of magnesium alloy foils greatly limits the application of these foils. Therefore, research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils is of great significance.

Numerous methods, such as conventional rolling (hot rolling and cold rolling), accumulative roll bonding, elastic plastic rolling (EPR), on-line heating rolling (O-LHR), and asynchronous rolling, are utilized to prepare magnesium and magnesium alloy foils; however, they require intermediate annealing or repeated heating during rolling [18]. Hot rolling is an important method for the preparation of thick magnesium foils with thicknesses greater than 0.3 mm. Cold rolling can be employed to prepare extremely thin magnesium foils but usually acquires multipass rolling with extremely small reductions and continuous annealing. Accumulative roll bonding is a process for the preparation of multilayered composites and is used by some researchers to prepare magnesium foils. However, its wide application is limited by the technical difficulty encountered in separating foils with high surface quality. EPR and O-LHR represent innovations in magnesium foil preparation and have great potential to improve the properties and applications of magnesium alloy foils. Optimizing rolling and its parameters is necessary to prepare magnesium foils with excellent performance.

Generally, magnesium and magnesium alloy foils are prone to defects (such as edge cracks), breakage, and other rolling defects (such as oxidation and waving) during rolling. These defects highly increase production costs and thus limit the wide application of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils. The formation of defects is caused by two aspects. First, magnesium and magnesium alloys exhibit poor ductility and formability during rolling mainly due to their hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal structure, which can only activate a limited number of independent slip systems at room temperature [19–21]. Therefore, a specific temperature range is needed to complete the basic rolling of magnesium alloy sheets [22]. Second, guaranteeing the rolling temperature of ultrathin sheets is difficult because these sheets have low thicknesses and experience rapid temperature drops during hot rolling. These characteristics are prone to aggravating anisotropy and forming difficulty. Although increasing the number of rolling passes and annealing times can effectively improve defects, this approach not only complicates the process, it also increases the occurrence rates of oxidation, cracking, fracture, and other defects. This effect seriously limits the mass and stable industrial production of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils.

This paper summarizes the current status and future development of relevant research from the aspects of preparation methods, defect mechanisms, properties, and applications of magnesium alloy foils. We hope to provide new research and development ideas and an engineering reference for the preparation of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils.

2. Methods for the preparation of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils

Magnesium foils are usually prepared through conventional rolling, accumulative roll bonding, EPR, and O-LHR [23–32]. The current status of the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Preparation of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils

Alloys	Rolling process	Final thickness / mm	Rolling temperature / K	Rolling reduction / %	Refs.
AZ31	Warm rolling	0.3	453–523		[23]
ME21	Warm rolling	0.2–0.5	553–573	15–20	[24]
Mg	Hot rolling	0.05	573 573–598	10 0.5–1	[25]
Mg	Hot rolling	0.04	573	15 1–2	[26]
Mg	Cold rolling	0.01	298		[27]
AZ31B	Accumulative roll bonding	0.05			[28]
AZ31	Accumulative roll bonding	0.04	623	50	[29]
AZ31	Electric plastic rolling	0.13	573		[18]
Mg	On-line heating rolling	0.3	473	70	[30]
AZ31	Vapor deposition	<0.15	473		[31–32]

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2.1 Conventional rolling

Conventional rolling is normally utilized to manufacture magnesium foils because of its high efficiency and simplicity. However, hot rolling cannot easily successfully prepare foils with thicknesses of less than 0.1 mm and yields foils with final thicknesses that are generally limited to approximately 0.3 mm. Yang et al. [23] reported that 6 mm-thick AZ31 extruded magnesium alloy sheets can be rolled to a thickness of 0.3 mm through appropriate reduction and interpass annealing over the rolling temperature range of 180–250°C. Zhang et al. [24] rolled a 1.4 mm-thick ME21 extruded sheet into magnesium foils with thicknesses of 0.2–0.5 mm through two intermediate annealing processes and found that the sheet with a thickness of 0.4 mm had good mechanical properties and that with a thickness of 0.3 mm had reduced anisotropy.

A small number of researchers have successfully prepared magnesium foils with thicknesses of less than 0.1 mm by using hot rolling. However, the preparation of magnesium foils usually involves complex preparation methods, resulting in high costs. Somekawa et al. [25] successfully prepared 50 μm-thick pure magnesium foils through hot rolling, as shown in Fig. 1. First, the 2 mm-thick extruded sheet was rolled to a thickness of 0.3 mm with a reduction of 10% per pass at 573 K and then to a thickness of 50 μm with a reduction of 0.5%–1% per pass at 573–598 K. Intermediate annealing was applied during both rolling procedures. Similarly, Mandai and Somekawa [26] successfully prepared 40 μm–thick pure magnesium foils through two main rolling procedures. First, a 2 mm-thick extruded magnesium sheet was rolled to a thickness of 0.5 mm with a reduction of 15% per pass and further rolled to a thickness of 0.04 mm with a reduction of 1%–2% per pass at a rolling temperature of 300°C.

Fig. 1. Rolled magnesium foils with a thickness of 50 μm: (a) aspect image; (b) inverse pole figure image of the RD–TD plane (RD―rolling direction, TD―transverse direction); (c) image quality map; (d) inverse pole figure image of the ND–TD plane correspond-ing to the enclosed region in (c) indicated by a white dashed line [25]. Reprinted from Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 872, H. Somekawa, N. Motohashi, S. Kuroda, et al., Mechanical and functional properties of ultra-thin Mg foils, 144934, Copyright 2023, with permission from Elsevier.

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Shi et al. [33] rolled magnesium sheets with thicknesses of less than 0.2 mm through cold rolling with a small pass reduction. Magnesium foils with thicknesses of 0.08 and 0.04 mm were obtained with single-pass reductions of 0.5% and 0.2%, respectively. Antonova et al. [27] first obtained a 1 mm-thick magnesium sheet through transverse extrusion and subsequently acquired 50–100 μm-thick magnesium foils with small reductions. Fig. 2 shows that the magnesium foils with thicknesses of 50–100 mm have good surface quality.

Fig. 2. Images of a 1 mm-thick plate (lowermost sample), a 0.3 mm-thick plate (middle sample), and 50–100 μm-thick magnesium foils (uppermost samples) [27]. Reprinted from Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 651, O.V. Antonova, A.Y. Volkov, B.I. Kamenetskii, et al., Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin magnesium plates and foils obtained by lateral extrusion and rolling at room temperature, 8-17, Copyright 2016, with permission from Elsevier.

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Conventional hot rolling is mainly used to prepare ultrathin sheets with thicknesses of 0.3 mm and above, and thin foils need to be prepared through small reduction, multipass, and multiple intermediate annealing processes. Although conventional cold rolling can also reduce the thicknesses of foils to 0.1 mm or less through small deformations, its experimental cost is high. Moreover, it yields small rolled pieces and thus remains in the experimental stage. Therefore, new methods for rolling magnesium foils should be explored.

2.2 Accumulative roll bonding

Accumulative roll bonding is a rolling process for the production of ultrafine-grained materials through large-strain deformation [34–35]. Accumulative roll bonding can produce magnesium alloy ultrathin sheets or foils. However, with the decrease in their thickness, ultrathin sheets become increasingly prone to cracking and oxidation [36]. Sun et al. [28] studied the effects of different rolling processes on the microstructure and rolling ability of AZ31B magnesium alloy ultrathin sheets. Two sheets with a thickness of 0.5 mm, four sheets with a thickness of 0.3 mm, and sheets with different thicknesses (upper and lower thicknesses of 0.4 mm and middle two thicknesses of 0.2 mm) were used as initial materials. Fig. 3 illustrates that AZ31 magnesium alloy foils with a thickness of 0.05 mm and good surface quality without edge cracks can be successfully prepared by rolling sheets with different thicknesses. Gao [29] rolled a 1.67 mm-thick AZ31 extruded sheet into a 0.04 mm-thick sheet through accumulative roll bonding at 350°C. However, the surface of the sheet underwent severe oxidation, exhibited numerous cracks and folds, and had poor quality. Antonova et al. [27] prepared ultrathin magnesium alloy foils with a thickness of 10 μm through assembly; that is, a magnesium sheet was placed between copper sheets and rolled. Fig. 4 shows a 0.4 mm-thick rolled sheet with severe surface oxidation and poor material quality.

Fig. 3. AZ31B magnesium alloy ultrathin sheet pack-rolled to a thickness of 0.05 mm [28].

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Fig. 4. Assembly of 10 μm-thick foils placed between copper plates [27]. Reprinted from Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 651, O.V. Antonova, A.Yu. Volkov, B.I. Kamenetskii, et al., Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin magnesium plates and foils obtained by lateral extrusion and rolling at room temperature, 8-17, Copyright 2016, with permission from Elsevier.

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Although accumulative roll bonding can successfully prepare ultrathin magnesium alloy foils, the resulting foils show severe surface oxidation and poor material quality. Most new technologies and processes remain in the laboratory research and trial production stages.

2.3 EPR

During foil rolling, EPR introduces an applied electric field, whose action produces an electroplastic effect [37]. The schematic of EPR is shown in Fig. 5. Electric work and conductive guide rollers act as negative and positive electrodes, respectively, and a pulse power supply provides a pulse current to the conductive and electric work rollers. An uneven electric field is formed in the rolled magnesium alloy foils along the rolling direction, and the direction of the electronic wind is opposite the rolling direction of the rolled magnesium alloy foils [38]. Electrical pulses can improve the plasticity of materials by changing their microstructure and have been widely used in the machining of magnesium alloys [39–41]. EPR can prepare high quality magnesium alloy foils at low rolling temperatures through the synergies of Joule heat and pure electric effects [42]. Yang et al. [18] designed multipass EPR and successfully rolled magnesium alloy foils with thicknesses of 1.0–0.13 mm. The pure electric effect can considerably improve the plasticity and rollability of magnesium alloy foils. Fig. 6 illustrates that the AZ31 foils exhibit a high-quality surface morphology, which is bright and lacks evident cracks. In addition, Jiang et al. [43] proved that EPR can considerably improve the properties of magnesium alloys. Sun et al. [44] believed that high-frequency pulse currents can effectively improve the surface quality and edge cracks of magnesium alloys. EPR can better improve the crack arrest, softening, plasticizing, and toughening of magnesium alloys than traditional rolling [45]. Electroplastic rolling is a promising rolling method for the preparation of magnesium alloy foils.

Fig. 5. EPR of a wide magnesium alloy foil: (a) main view; (b) vertical view [38]. Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: J. Mech. Sci. Technol, Anisotropy evolution of wide magnesium alloy foils during continuous electroplastic rolling, L.P. Yang, H.L. Zhang, and G.L. Liu, copyright 2023.

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Fig. 6. Surface morphology of different EPR foils [18]. Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: Met. Mater. Int., Performance analysis of wide magnesium alloy foil rolled by multi-pass electric plastic rolling, L.P. Yang, H.L. Zhang, and G.L. Liu, copyright 2023.

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2.4 O-LHR

O-LHR for achieving the large-strain rolling of magnesium at low temperatures has attracted the attention of researchers and has been successfully applied to roll magnesium alloys [46]. The schematic of an O-LHR device is shown in Fig. 7 [47]. On-line heating mills mainly include heating, tension, and rolling systems. During heating, a hydraulic chuck at both ends of a roller clamps a sheet through a roll gap into a circuit, and the thermal effect of the current in a foil induces the foil itself to heat up. After heating is completed, the foil is directly rolled under the tension applied by the chuck. O-LHR provides fast heating, high rolling efficiency, and low heat loss. It can reduce the temperature difference in the middle and edges of sheets and effectively improve the edge cracking resistance of sheets under rolling at large strains [48–49].

Fig. 7. (a) O-LHR device and (b) schematic of rolling [47]. Reprinted from J. Manuf. Processes, 85, Q. Liu, Y. Liu, Q. Luo, et al., Ameliorating the edge cracking behavior of Mg–Mn–Al alloy sheets prepared by multi-pass online heating rolling, 977-986, Copyright 2023, with permission from Elsevier.

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Numerous studies have reported on magnesium and magnesium alloy thin sheets and foils manufactured by using O-LHR. Xiao et al. [50] used O-LHR to roll AZ31B alloy sheets from a thickness of 1 to 0.5 mm under 50% single-pass reduction at 200°C. Shen et al. [30] used high strain and a large single-pass reduction of 60% to roll magnesium 9999 extruded sheets with a thickness of 1 mm and a pure Mg sheet with a thickness of 0.4 mm. They successfully prepared 0.13 mm-thick Mg–0.5Ce foils under only three passes through O-LHR. The rolling parameters are shown in Table 2. The temperature of rollers is maintained at 120°C. Fig. 8 shows that the 0.13 mm-thick foils have good surface quality and a metallic luster. Interestingly, the medium wave generated by the first pass disappears in the subsequent rolling. This phenomenon has not been studied. Therefore, O-LHR is another method for preparing high-quality magnesium foils.

Table 2. O-LHR parameters of Mg–0.5Ce alloy foils

Rolling pass	Thickness change / mm	Thickness reduction / %	Rolling force / kN	Rolling temperature / °C
1	1.00 → 0.50	50	2.7	230
2	0.50 → 0.25	50	2.0	120
3	0.25 → 0.13	48	1.5	70

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In addition to the conventional rolling method, accumulative roll bonding, O-LHR, and EPR are all promising methods for preparing magnesium and magnesium alloy foils. Vapor deposition is usually applied to prepare magnesium foils with thicknesses of less than 0.15 mm [31–32]. Preparation methods must be constantly improved and innovated to obtain high-quality magnesium and magnesium alloy foils.

Fig. 8. Surface morphology of Mg–0.5Ce alloy foils.

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3. Rolling defects and their control in magnesium and magnesium alloy foils

Magnesium and magnesium alloys, due to their HCP structure and the limitations of their forming process, form a strong, hard, and oriented texture during rolling. In particular, the size effect and anisotropy aggravate as foil thickness decreases, resulting in uneven performance and local stress concentration, which extends into macroscopic problems, such as edge cracks, breakage, and surface cracks [45].

3.1 Edge cracks

Edge cracks are the most common defects in the rolling of magnesium alloys [51]. Edge cutting treatment is needed to eliminate edge cracks in magnesium sheets; this treatment not only causes considerable sheet waste but also seriously limits the wide application of magnesium alloy sheets [52]. Edge cracks form mainly due to the different stress states and large temperature differences of the middle and edges of foils [53–54]. In the rolling of magnesium alloy foils, the middle metal is subjected to three-dimensional compressive stress, whereas the edge metal is subjected to one-tension and one-compression stress states that make the edge of magnesium foils susceptible to cracking during rolling deformation. Given that magnesium alloys have strong thermal conductivity and fast heat dissipation, the temperature difference at the middle and edges of the foils during rolling is large and edge cracks are easily produced.

Mandai and Somekawa [26] prepared ultrathin magnesium foils through conventional hot and warm rolling processes. Fig. 9(a) and (b) illustrates that the foil prepared through common hot rolling has severe edge cracks, whereas that prepared via warm rolling lacks edge cracks and has a metallic glossy surface. Rolling temperature affected microstructures. Specifically, the warm-rolled foil (Fig. 9(c)) had a coarser average grain size and lower residual stress density than the cold-rolled foil (Fig. 9(d)). Regardless of rolling temperatures, high-angle grain boundaries had nonequilibrium interfaces (Fig. 9(e) and (f)). Somekawa et al. [25] extruded as-cast pure magnesium to a thickness of 2 mm and then rolled it to a thickness of 50 μm through multipass hot rolling with small reductions. Fig. 1(a) shows that the foil lacks defects, such as edge and surface cracks, and its surface exhibits a metallic luster. In addition, the foil has an average grain size of 12.3 and 9.0 μm along the RD–TD and ND–TD planes and a basal texture (Fig. 1(b) and (d)). Antonova et al. [27] successfully prepared ultrathin magnesium alloy foils with thicknesses of 10–100 μm. The magnesium foil with a thickness of 10 mm lacked edge cracks but had poor surface quality.

Fig. 9. (a) Cold-rolled magnesium foils; (b) warm-rolled magnesium foils; (c) Kernel average misorientations of warm-rolled foils; (d) Kernel average misorientations of cold-rolled foils; (e) high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF–STEM) image of warm-rolled foils; (f) HAADF–STEM image of cold-rolled foils [26].

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In recent years, various researchers have developed new processes and rolling technologies to improve the edge cracking behavior of magnesium alloy sheets/foils during rolling. These techniques include hard-plate rolling by transforming the shear stress at the edges of sheets into compressive stress [55–57], O-LHR by promoting dynamic recrystallization [58], width-limited rolling by transforming tensile stress along the rolling direction into compressive stress along the transverse direction [59], vertical roll prerolling by making microstructures uniform and weakening texture [60–61], multicross rolling by refining microstructures and weakening texture [62], and EPR by promoting uniform plastic deformation and dynamic recrystallization [63]. In addition, some researchers improved edge cracking behavior by improving process parameters, such as rolling temperature [64], speed [65–66], and tension [48]. The addition of heterogeneous particles has been found to improve edge cracks by inhibiting the generation of coarse shear bands and providing uniform microstructures [67–68].

3.2 Breakage

Breakage is an irreversible defect that often occurs and a severe problem in the rolling of magnesium alloy foils. In the rolling process, the flow deformation ability of magnesium foils is gradually weaker, which is easy to produce large residual stress or local stress concentration, inducing the relaxation change of metastable defects and produce breakage. In addition, edge cracks and microcracks on foil surfaces can easily lead to breakage. Somekawa et al. [25] found that fracture features vary with foil thickness. Fig. 10 shows that ductile behavior occurs in magnesium foils with a thickness of 400 μm, whereas brittle fracture occurs in magnesium foils with a thickness of 50 μm. Researchers believe that the fracture mechanism is intergranular fracture due to strain-accumulated grain boundaries. Shen et al. [30] studied in detail the mechanism of the breakage of magnesium foils during rolling and found that the reason for breakage was not only severe edge cracks but also uneven deformation during rolling that resulted in the formation of uneven grooves on surfaces. Fig. 11 illustrates that roughness is the highest and can reach 23.1 μm near fractures. Roughness increases gradually with the distance from the inner side to the fracture of the foil. Research on band breakage defects in the rolling of magnesium alloy foils is scant. This situation greatly limits the wide application of magnesium foils.

Fig. 10. Fracture morphologies of magnesium foils with different thicknesses: (a) 400 and (b) 50 μm [25]. Reprinted from Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 872, H. Somekawa, N. Motohashi, S. Kuroda, et al., Mechanical and functional properties of ultra-thin Mg foils, 144934, Copyright 2023, with permission from Elsevier.

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Fig. 11. (a) Macromorphologies of fractures and laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscope maps of a 300 μm-thick magnesium foil: (b) 2, (c) 3, and (d) 4 [30]. Reprinted from J. Mater. Res. Technol, 26, Q.Y. Shen, J.F. Song, H.F. Feng, et al., On-line heating rolling behavior of Mg9999 sheets under large single pass reduction, 6719-6730, Copyright 2023, with permission from Elsevier.

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Breakage is a defect that easily occurs in the preparation of all foils and needs to be controlled from various aspects. First, the defects of magnesium alloy castings need to be controlled to improve foil quality. If the gas and slag in the initial billet are not removed completely, stress easily concentrates in the subsequent rolling process, and microcracks appear on the surfaces of magnesium foils, resulting in breakage. Second, if the thickness of the magnesium foils is less than 0.2 mm, the rolling environment need to be controlled to prevent the appearance of metal shavings or metal fragments, which cause continuity damage on the foil surface. Finally, due to the poor deformability of magnesium alloys, the temperature of magnesium foils rapidly decreases during rolling, and cracks or even fractures easily appear on the surface of the foils. Therefore, rolling temperature, rolling speed, total rolling reduction, and interpass reduction should be strictly controlled.

3.3 Other rolling defects

Surface cracks are other types of defects that easily occur during the preparation of magnesium foils. They occur because ensuring the rolling temperature is difficult given the low thicknesses of the foils and rapid temperature drops during hot rolling.

Oxidation is another defect encountered in the preparation of magnesium alloy foils. It mainly occurs because rollers and foils adhere closely to each other. Moreover, the surfaces of magnesium foils oxidize during hot rolling due to high temperatures.

Sticking is a defect that mainly results from the severe oxidation of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils. In addition, edge and medium waves appear during rolling and are related to sheet flatness.

Oxidation is a difficult problem to solve in the production of magnesium alloy foils. During hot rolling, magnesium foils easily oxidize and adhere to rollers. Billets with high surface finishes and excellent performance can be used to improve foil quality further. Edge and medium waves are mainly solved by reducing foil width or increasing rolling tension.

4. Properties of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils

4.1 Mechanical properties

Given that magnesium and magnesium alloy foils have poor plasticity at room temperature, their severe anisotropy or texture issues limit their further applications. In recent years, researchers have attempted to improve mechanical properties through various methods [69–71]. Table 3 summarizes the mechanical properties of magnesium foils subjected to different rolling processes.

Table 3. Mechanical properties of magnesium and magnesium foils subjected to different rolling processes

Alloy	Rolling process	Thickness / mm	Tensile strength / MPa	Yield strength / MPa	Elongation / %	Ref.
Mg	Multipass rolling	0.035	159	125.4		[25]
Mg	Multipass rolling	0.12	203	135	8.3	[27]
AZ31	Extrusion	0.2	250	75		[69]
AZ31	EPR	0.13	210	164	2.75	[18]
AZ31	EPR	0.15	245	204	1.89	[38]
AZ31	EPR	0.5	250	110		[70]
Mg	Cold rolling	0.12	240	148	14	[71]

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Electric-assisted treatment is one of the most effective means for improving the mechanical properties of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils. Researchers have studied the properties of magnesium foils subjected to EPR with different passes [18]. The yield strength of different samples decreased slowly with the increase in the number of rolling passes. In addition, with the increase in the number of rolling passes, Vickers hardness increased rapidly and ranged from HV 80 to HV 90. At the same rolling temperature, the pure electric effect could remarkably improve the plasticity and rollability of magnesium alloy foils. Yang et al. [38] studied the anisotropy evolution and mechanical properties of magnesium foils during continuous EPR. Their results proved that pulse currents with high energy could ameliorate high brittleness and severe anisotropy. This effect promoted plasticity and rollability. Fig. 12 shows that at the rolling temperature of 250°C, elongation, tensile strength, and yield strength were approximately 20%, 50 MPa, and 220 MPa, respectively. Therefore, EPR is used to improve the mechanical properties of magnesium alloy foils and has great benefits for mechanical responses, deformation mechanisms, and microstructural evolution [70].

Fig. 12. Tensile properties of AZ31 rolled by using the pulse current method at (a) 100°C, (b) 175°C, and (c) 250°C [38]. Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: J. Mech. Sci. Technol., Anisotropy evolution of wide magnesium alloy foils during continuous electroplastic rolling, L.P. Yang, H.L. Zhang, and G.L. Liu, copyright 2023.

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In addition, low-temperature annealing can increase the strength of magnesium alloy sheets/foils through the pinning of gliding basal dislocations by Guinier–Preston zones and possibly solute atoms that have segregated to dislocations [72]. Xin et al. [73] found that the pinning of twin boundaries by segregated solute atoms increased the activation stress for detwinning deformation, which led to annealing hardening. Komkova and Volkov [71] performed annealing at 150–200°C to improve the yield strength and elongation of deformed pure magnesium foil. The maximum yield strength of the foil reached 148 MPa after annealing at 200°C, and elongation remained at a sufficiently high level and reached 14%. Tian et al. [74] analyzed the microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ31 foil obtained through single-pass rolling at different temperatures and rolling reduction percentages. The yield and tensile strengths of the AZ31 foil after rolling were 187.9 and 267.1 MPa, respectively.

4.2 Corrosion properties

Although magnesium alloy foils are attractive anode materials for use in secondary magnesium ion, air, and sea water batteries, magnesium has poor corrosion resistance, and its corrosion rate increases during battery discharging/charging [75]. The corrosion properties of magnesium alloys have been studied [76–77]. Lin et al. [78] prepared LAZ1231 (Mg–12wt%Li–2.6wt%Al–0.72wt%Zn) and LAZ1291 (Mg–11.9wt%Li–8.5wt%Al–0.57wt%Zn) alloy foils to study their corrosion performance in MgCl₂ electrolyte solution and compared them with AZ31. Fig. 13 shows that corrosion resistance declined in the order of LAZ1291 > LAZ1231 > AZ31. Richey et al. [79] studied the corrosion behavior of magnesium anodes in aqueous solutions. They found that when high-purity magnesium foils (250 μm-thick) were used as anodes, the Faraday efficiency of the NaNO₃ electrolyte became 20% higher than those of NaCl and HNa₂PO₄. Schloffer et al. [80] investigated the cell performance of MgZn, MgGd, and MgZnGd alloy foils when used as anodes for magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) and found that the added elements had a negligible effect on the corrosion potential of the alloys in APC/THF electrolytes.

Fig. 13. Corrosion rates of LAZ1291, LAZ1231, and AZ31 alloy foils in MgCl₂ electrolyte solution [78]. Reprinted from Corros. Sci., 51, M.C. Lin, C.Y. Tsai, and J.Y. Uan, Electrochemical behaviour and corrosion performance of Mg–Li–Al–Zn anodes with high Al composition, 2463-2472, Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier.

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Designing artificial solid electrolyte interphases (SEIs) is a common way to improve the corrosion performance of magnesium foils. Artificial SEIs could be fabricated on magnesium metal anodes through the addition of multifunctional solutions. Lv et al. [81] dripped SnCl₂/DME solution onto a polished magnesium foil to form an artificial SEI on a magnesium metal anode. Wei et al. [82] studied a simple strategy to address the issues of magnesium metal anodes by painting a liquid metal Ga layer on magnesium foil. They found that the number of exposed highly reactive magnesium sites on the painted foil had greatly decreased compared with that on the pure magnesium metal anode. At present, most studies focus on thick magnesium alloy sheets but have paid little attention to the corrosion of thin magnesium foils [83–84].

4.3 Electrochemical properties

Magnesium alloy foils are an ideal anode material for batteries because of their high theoretical specific capacity (2.22 Ah∙g⁻¹), low cost, nontoxicity, and high power. A previous work [85] performed a theoretical study on 34 dopants to improve magnesium ductility and explored their potential use as anodes in magnesium batteries. Ue et al. [86] assumed that the capacity and discharge voltage of an ideal stacked cell are fixed at 0.972 Ah and 2.5 V, respectively, and that the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of a 40 μm-thick magnesium foil anode with a 50% utilization ratio are 186 Wh∙kg⁻¹ and 252 Wh∙L⁻¹, respectively. Mandai and Somekawa [26] found that the battery performance of pure magnesium foils prepared through warm rolling was better than that of AZ31 foil. Maddegalla et al. [87] prepared AZ31 foils as anodes for MIBs. They found that the electrochemical and surface chemical behaviors of AZ31 thin foil anodes were comparable to those of pure magnesium foil anodes. Bondar et al. [88] compared the electrochemical properties of anodes based on magnesium foils (100 μm) and magnesium electrodes with porous structures (less than 70 μm) and discovered that the impedance characteristics of magnesium electrodes with porous structures were characterized by considerably lower resistance than those of magnesium electrodes based on magnesium foils. Zhao et al. [89] fabricated and used 0.1–0.5 mm-thick Mg–Al–Zn and Mg–Mn foils as the anodes of sea water batteries and found that Mg–Al–Zn alloys had a high hydrogen precipitation overpotential at their surface, leading to a reduced rate of self-corrosion. In addition, Wen et al. found that “true” specific capacity occurred and energy density decreased as the magnesium metal anode thickness increased, as shown in Fig. 14 [90].

Fig. 14. (a) “True” specific capacity of a magnesium metal anode considering the capacity used in charge/discharge and overall thickness of a magnesium metal anode. (b) Calculated energy density of a battery system pairing a Mg_0.15MnO₂ cathode with a magnesium metal anode (different thicknesses) in accordance with reference data [90–91]. Reprinted with permission from T.T. Wen, Y.J. Deng, B.H. Qu, et al., ACS Energy Lett., 8, 4848-4861 (2023) [90], copyright 2023 American Chemical Society.

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5. Application of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils

5.1 MIB anodes

Although lithium-ion batteries are widely used, their application has safety and cost problems [92–93]. MIBs are regarded as promising secondary batteries due to their small radius, abundant reserves, and low cost of magnesium [94–96]. Importantly, bivalent Mg²⁺ has a higher capacity performance than Li⁺ [97–98]. In 1990, Gregory et al. [99] reported for the first time a complete secondary MIB system using magnesium (BR4)₂ (wherein R is an organic group) solution and Mg_xCoO_y as the electrolyte and cathode. The use of magnesium foils as the anodes of battery systems will greatly improve energy density and material utilization and further reduce the weight of entire batteries, thus contributing to carbon peaking and neutrality.

5.2 Biomaterials

Biomaterials must be biocompatible, nonimmunogenic, and nontoxic while exhibiting space-forming, cell occlusion, and tissue integration abilities and clinical manageability to be useful for medical technology [100–102]. Magnesium is a biodegradable metal that can be absorbed by the human body without toxic residues and shows excellent biocompatibility when employed as a biomaterial [103–105]. Magnesium alloy foils are commonly utilized as barrier membranes [106–108]. In dental surgery, barrier membranes are applied to position and seclude gingival soft tissues from migrating into spaces created by bony defects, thus enabling new bone to populate the target area and restore functionality [109]. A schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 15 [110]. Rider et al. [108] fabricated magnesium foils with a thickness of 0.14 mm for use as barrier membranes. During resorption, the membranes based on magnesium foils were surrounded and then replaced by new bone until only healthy tissue remained.

Fig. 15. (a) Pure magnesium membrane; (b) pure magnesium membrane used for guided bone regeneration [110].

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5.3 Other applications

Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from cell phones and computers has emerged as a new form of pollution in daily life [111]. Magnesium has become one of the most attractive shielding materials in the electronics industry due to its high electrical conductivity (−2.3 × 10⁷ S/m) and strength, as well as low density [112–114]. The most outstanding advantage of magnesium over other alloys, such as copper, aluminum, and iron, is its lower weight at the same thickness [115]. Magnesium foils can play an important role as an ultrathin material with the increase in the demand for lightweight electronics. Mitsubishi Steel Mfg Co., Ltd. successfully developed loudspeaker vibration films made of pure magnesium foils for the first time. Pure magnesium foils have lighter weight and better vibration attenuation performance than traditional magnesium alloy vibration films. The vibration attenuation characteristics of magnesium vibration films are 4–5 times better than those of vibration films made of aluminum and titanium alloys [116].

6. Summary and outlook

RMBs have attracted tremendous attention and appear to be one of the best choices in the renewable energy field due to their high recharge capacity and safety. Magnesium and magnesium alloy foils have great potential for battery anode applications. In addition, magnesium and magnesium alloy foils can be used for electromagnetic shielding, optics, acoustics and biomaterials.

Magnesium and magnesium alloy foils are usually prepared through conventional rolling, accumulative roll bonding, EPR, and O-LHR. AZ31 foils with a thickness of 0.04 mm and pure magnesium foils with a thickness of 0.01 mm have been successfully prepared.

However, magnesium and magnesium alloy foils have limited applications due to their extremely high price. Their high production cost mainly results from the easy formation of rolling defects, such as edge cracking and breakage, as well as their long and complex rolling procedure, which may take over 100 rolling passes.

Hence, low-cost technologies for the mass production of magnesium and magnesium alloy foils still need to be developed. Special rolling equipment, such as six- and 20-roller rolling mills, for magnesium and magnesium alloy foil production, must be designed and developed. Additionally, the mechanism of rolling defects in magnesium and magnesium alloy foils should receive further attention to develop defect control technologies. Rolling parameters should be further optimized to reduce production costs.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Nos. 2022YFB3709300 and 2021YFB3701000), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52271090 and 52071036), the Guangdong Major Project of Basic and Applied Basic Research (No. 2020B0301030006), and the Independent Research Project of State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmissions (Nos. SKLMT-ZZKT-2022Z01 and SKLMT-ZZKT-2022M12).

Conflict of Interest

Fusheng Pan is an advisory board member and Bin Jiang is an editorial board member for this journal and were not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this article. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

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Recent progress in the research on magnesium and magnesium alloy foils: A short review