| Cite this article as: |
Yongliang Li, Shiji Guo, Renshu Yang, Liangyu Xie, and Shouheng Lu, Effects of gangue particle-size gradation on damage and failure behavior of cemented backfill under uniaxial compression, Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.,(2025). https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12613-024-3042-1
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Investigation techniques, such as uniaxial compression tests, acoustic emission, digital image correlation monitoring, and scanning electron microscopy, were used from macroscopic and microscopic perspectives to investigate the effects of gangue particle-size gradation on the damage characteristics of cemented backfill. The peak strength, acoustic emission characteristics, and failure modes of cemented backfills with different gangue size gradations were examined. Test results indicated that with an increase in the gradation coefficient, the compressive strength of the gangue-cemented backfill first increased and then decreased. When the gradation coefficient is 0.5, the maximum compressive strength of the backfill is 4.28 MPa. The acoustic emission counts during the loading of gangue-cemented fills with different gradation coefficients passed through three phases: rising, active, and significantly active. The number of internal pores and cracks, as well as the uneven distribution of their locations, cause differences in acoustic emission characteristics at the same stage and variations in the strength of the backfill due to the different gangue particle-size gradations in the filler sample.
The solid waste generated by underground mining operations is a source of land use issues, landscape degradation, and environmental pollution [1]. In the context of green development, mining researchers have proposed the green mining concept as a response to the aforementioned issues, and fill-mining technology is an important component of green mining practices [2–8]. Fill mining has been widely used in mining operations due to its substantial economic benefits and capability to notably reduce solid waste pollution [9]. Gangue cement fill mining technology enables the comprehensive utilization of solid coal waste and helps control harmful surface deformation, contributing to the protection of the ecological environment in mining regions. Therefore, this technology is becoming increasingly important for the coal mining industry of China [10–14]. In underground mining, when used as a supporting structure for the roof, the strength of cemented backfill is crucial for the stability of the quarry. The mechanical properties of cemented backfill are notably affected by the type of aggregate and particle size [15–18]. Therefore, the type of aggregate and the particle size of cemented backfill have received considerable attention from the scientific community. Wang et al. [19] tested the filling ratio with gypsum using different crushed stone grain sizes. This test was realized by using the optimal ratio of combined gravel and gypsum-cemented backfill and testing the filling ratio with gypsum using different crushed stone grain sizes. Deng et al. [20] compared the effects of two aggregates with different particle sizes on the strength of cemented backfill. Their results indicated that adding an appropriate amount of coarse aggregates drastically increased the strength of the backfill. Wen et al. [21] optimized the gradation of a mixed aggregate through gradation analysis and controlled the segregation rate of the slurry, using yield stress as the condition. Börgesson et al. [22] believed that the particle size distribution of the aggregate leads to poor homogeneity of the cemented backfill materials, resulting in differences in the mechanical properties of the cemented backfill. Gautam et al. [23] considered aggregate grading to be an important parameter that affects the quality of filling materials. Yang et al. [24] replaced waste rock bars with fly ash for grinding coarse sand aggregates, and their results indicated that the addition of fly ash inhibited strength development in the early stages of backfill but promoted strength growth in the later stages. Kesimal et al. [25] and Fall et al. [26] investigated the effects of aggregate type and content on the strength of the backfill. In addition, Zha et al. [27] and Zhang [28] performed uniaxial compression tests on filling materials and studied the effects of grade on strength and deformability. According to Talbot’s theory, researchers have explored the mechanical properties of backfills with different gradation coefficients and determined the optimal gradation [29–33]. Recently, an increasing number of scientists have examined the effects of the particle-size distribution of aggregates on the mechanical properties of fillings. Talbot’s theory is now widely used for optimizing the proportioning of materials in the fields of mechanical sand aggregate and crushed rock sand [34–35].
Extensive research has been conducted on the effects of cementitious material type, content, and curing temperature on backfill strength [36–40]. However, research on ratio optimization based on Talbot grading theory—particularly in the field of microscopic fracture mechanisms, is lacking. In this paper, through the Talbot grading theory, uniaxial compression test, acoustic emission system, digital image correlation (DIC) system, and scanning electron microscope were used to obtain the stress–strain curve, acoustic emission characteristics, full-field strain development, and microstructure of different graded backfills under uniaxial compression, respectively. The damage and fracture mechanisms of gangue-cemented fillers are investigated from macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints. The results provide theoretical support for the design of gangue particle-size gradation in backfill for coal mine filling and mining operations.
The backfill preparation materials used in this experiment were crushed gangue (particle size of < 15 mm) and fly ash from the Haoyuan Coal Mine in western Inner Mongolia, China. The bonding agent was 32.5R slag cement, which has early strength properties. X-ray diffraction analysis was conducted to determine the mineral compositions of the gangue, cement, and fly ash, while a laser particle-size analyzer was used to measure the particle-size distributions of the cement and fly ash. The results of the mineral composition and particle-size distribution are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. The gangue with different particle sizes used in the test is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The main components of the gangue used in the test were kaolinite, quartz, and iron trioxide, accounting for 39.7wt%, 10.5wt %, and 36.2wt%, respectively. The main components of the cement were tricalcium silicate, quartz, and calcium carbonate, which accounted for 57wt%, 9.8wt%, and 33.2wt%, respectively. Fly ash is rich in elements such as Fe, Al, Si, and Ca, with the main components being calcium sulfate, quartz, and kyanite, which account for 32wt%, 25.7wt%, and 20.8wt%, respectively. The median particle size of the cement particles used in the test is less than 12.37 μm, and the maximum particle size is 53.94 μm, with the particle sizes mainly concentrated in the range of 1.45–27.62 μm. The median particle size of the fly ash particles used in the test is less than 27.62 μm, and the maximum particle size is 179.9 μm, with the particle sizes mainly concentrated in the range of 3.71–53.94 μm.
Consider the flow properties of the slurry and the strength of the backfill after curing in the mined-out area. Solid materials were mixed with water in a certain proportion to form a slurry with 75wt% consistency (cement:fly ash:gangue mass ratio of 1:2:4.5). Before the paste was poured into the mold, a layer of dimethyl silicone oil was applied to the inside of the mold to prevent the material from sticking to the mold walls and to avoid damaging the sample during demolding. The slurry was then placed in a cylindrical mold with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 100 mm, and it was vibrated to ensure proper compaction. The vibration aimed to eliminate air in the slurry and provide a highly compact sample. The specimens are demolded after 24 h and cured for 28 d with a humidity of 95% and a temperature of 21°C. The cured sample was then removed, and the surface was sprayed with a spot treatment spray. Afterward, an attachment of the acoustic emission sensor fixture was fastened to the design position in advance, and the ground was prepared for the trial. Talbot’s theory is modified on the basis of Fuller’s theory and was used in this study to calculate the grain size gradation of the gangue.
The formula of Talbot’s theory is as follows:
| P=100(dD)n | (1) |
where P represents the passing rate of the current particle size, d represents the current particle size, D represents the maximum particle size, and n is the Talbot theory coefficient, which generally ranges from 0.2 to 0.8. The mass of the materials used in the filling body with different gradation coefficients is the same, among which the gangue is 0.63 kg, the cement is 0.14 kg, the fly ash is 0.28 kg, and the water is 0.35 kg. The proportion of each particle size interval of the gangue was calculated using the formula of Talbot’s theory, as shown in Table 1. Each group of filling-body ratio schemes can be poured using three backfills. A flowchart of the sample preparation is shown in Fig. 4.
| n | 0–3 mm | 3–6 mm | 6–9 mm | 9–12 mm | 12–15 mm |
| 0.2 | 72.5 | 10.8 | 7.0 | 5.3 | 4.4 |
| 0.3 | 61.7 | 14.3 | 9.6 | 7.7 | 6.5 |
| 0.4 | 52.5 | 16.8 | 12.2 | 10.0 | 8.5 |
| 0.5 | 44.7 | 18.5 | 14.3 | 11.9 | 10.6 |
| 0.6 | 38.1 | 19.6 | 15.9 | 13.9 | 12.5 |
| 0.7 | 32.4 | 20.3 | 17.2 | 15.6 | 14.5 |
| 0.8 | 27.6 | 20.4 | 18.5 | 17.2 | 16.3 |
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The instruments used in the experiment included a YAD-2000 hydraulic servo universal testing machine, an acoustic emission detection system, and a DIC system. The arrangement of the experimental equipment is shown in Fig. 5.
First, the cured backfill sample was placed at the center of the loading plate of the hydraulic servo tester, and the loading rate was set to 0.5 mm·min−1 through the console of the servo testing machine. During the experiment, the console recorded the force and displacement data of the backfill during loading. The acoustic emission equipment and digital image-related equipment were simultaneously turned on when the hydraulic servo testing machine was used to compress the backfill, and the acoustic emission testing equipment obtained the acoustic emission ringing count, cumulative ringing count, energy, amplitude, and other related backfill parameters during the loading process. To avoid the influence of noise around the test area on the experiment, the acoustic emission threshold was set to 40 dB before the experiment, the pre-amplification gain of the amplifier was set to 40 dB, and the sampling frequency was set to 1 MHz. A DIC system was used to obtain strain results on the surface of the backfill specimen throughout the loading process. This system comprised two cameras, two light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and a control system. The DIC system operated as follows: Two LED lights served as a sufficient light source for spots on the surface of the gangue-cemented pack. Information regarding the scattering deformation of the backfill surface during the loading process was then transmitted to a computer. Finally, appropriate software was used for data processing and analysis.
The uniaxial compressive strengths and elastic moduli of the cemented backfills with different gangue gradation coefficients are presented in Fig. 6. As the gangue particle size gradation coefficient increased, the compressive strength and Young’s modulus of the cemented backfill initially increased and then decreased. The average peak intensity of specimens with gradation coefficients of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 were 2.80, 2.82, 3.28, 4.28, 2.65, 2.55, and 2.44 MPa, respectively. Compared with the average uniaxial compressive strength of the sample with a gradation coefficient of 0.5, the average uniaxial compressive strength was 34.6%, 34.1%, 23.4%, 38.1%, 40.4%, and 43.0% lower at the other gradation coefficients. The average elastic moduli of samples with gradation coefficients of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 were 0.092, 0.100, 0.114, 0.148, 0.084, 0.075, and 0.072 GPa, respectively. Compared with the average elastic modulus of the specimens with a gradation coefficient of 0.5, the elastic modulus was 37.8%, 32.4%, 23.0%, 43.2%, 49.3%, and 51.4% lower than the other gradation coefficients.
The main reason for the difference in uniaxial compression results of the backfill under different grading coefficients lies in the varying proportions of coarse and fine aggregates in the backfill. This variation leads to differences in the number of primary pores and the bonding states of the cement formed during cement hydration, which affects the cementation process and results in variations in the strength of the backfill. The strength of the backfill directly influences its acoustic emission characteristics, the occurrence of shear and tensile fractures, the development of full-field strain, and the macroscopic damage characteristics.
When the cemented backfill is subjected to an external load, elastic energy is released in the form of stress waves. At different load levels, the waveform signals vary, and the release of elastic energy can be detected by acoustic emission equipment, which records the signals. Therefore, the fracture evolution patterns in specimens with different backfill gradation coefficients can be determined by monitoring the acoustic emission signal characteristics of the backfill during compression.
The acoustic emission counts, cumulative counts, and stress curves during the uniaxial compression of gangue-cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients are shown in Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 7, the cumulative acoustic emission values of the backfill follow a distinct pattern, first decreasing and then increasing as the gradation coefficient rises. When the gradation factor is increased from 0.2 to 0.5, the cumulative sound emission counts decrease from 22370 to 7554, representing a 66.23% reduction. However, when the gradation factor is further increased to 0.8, the cumulative sound emission counts rise to 90390, marking a 304.07% increase compared to the cumulative sound emission counts at a gradation factor of 0.2. During the backfill loading process, the cumulative number of acoustic emission ringing sounds can be divided into three phases: rising, active, and significantly active.
First phase (rising phase): This phase corresponds to the compression phase of the stress–strain curve. During this stage, the number of acoustic emission events ranged from none to a few for backfills with different gradation coefficients. Notable differences were observed in the ring and cumulative ring counts, with the slope of the cumulative ring count curve being relatively low. This phenomenon was mainly due to the presence of a large number of primary defects within the backfill and the closure of these internal defects under the external loads during the compaction phase.
Second stage (active phase): This phase corresponded to the elastic and plastic phases of the stress–strain curve. During this stage, the acoustic emission ringing count rate was relatively high, and the slope of the cumulative acoustic emission ring count curve gradually increased. Additionally, increased acoustic emission activity was observed during this phase due to the occurrence of continuous development and expansion of microfractures within the backfills with different gradation coefficients. This phenomenon indicates that the count rate of the acoustic emission ringing was relatively high.
Third stage (significantly active phase): This stage corresponds to the postpeak phase of the stress–strain curve. During this period, the count rates of the acoustic emission ringers were unusually high, accompanied by a substantial increase in the ring count, and the slope of the corresponding curve for the cumulative number of rings reached its maximum. This finding indicates that numerous microfractures within the backfill sample began to interconnect locally, leading to the germination and expansion of new cracks, which caused macroscopic damage to the sample. With the increase of gradation coefficient, the proportion of coarse aggregate increased, resulting in friction between them during loading and leading to the initiation and growth of new cracks. This phenomenon contributed to the high acoustic emission ringing count.
The destabilization of the cemented backfill results from the initiation, propagation, and penetration of cracks during the loading process, with the damage pattern of the backfill being strongly influenced by the shape of the fracture distribution. Therefore, studying the fracture evolution of the cemented backfill is crucial for clarifying its destabilizing mechanism. The rise angle (RA) and average frequency (AF) are not only important parameters of acoustic emission but also key factors in acoustic emission waveform analysis, which can be used to characterize the types of fractures in materials [41]. In waveform analysis, when the RA value (rise time/amplitude) is low, and the AF value (count/duration) is high, tensile cracking is generally regarded as the primary failure mode of the backfill. Conversely, when the RA is high, and the AF is low, shear fracture is the main failure mode of the backfill. Therefore, the RA/AF ratio can be used to determine the failure types of materials [42].
The relationship between the RA and AF for different gradation coefficients is shown in Fig. 8. The scatter distribution of the backfill is relatively dense in the shear crack region, while the scattering distribution in the tensile cleavage region is less pronounced. This finding indicates that the damage mode of the specimens with different backfill gradation coefficients was primarily shear damage.
As shown in Fig. 8, with the increase in the gradation coefficient, the percentage of tensile cleavage in the backfill first increases and then decreases. When the gradation coefficient increases from 0.2 to 0.4, the tensile cleavage percentage rises from 24.6% to 44.6%. However, as the gradation coefficient continues to increase to 0.8, the tensile cleavage percentage decreases to 23.7%. Conversely, the percentage of shear cleavage in the backfill decreases and then increases as the gradation coefficient increases. From 0.2 to 0.4, the shear cleavage percentage decreases from 75.4% to 55.4%, but as the gradation coefficient continues to increase to 0.8, the shear cleavage percentage increases again, reaching 76.6%.
As shown in Fig. 9, a comparative analysis of the full-field strains of the backfills with different gradation coefficients was performed at the following four stress levels: the point of initial loading (A), the beginning of the elastic phase (B), the yield strength point (C), and the peak intensity point (D). The effects of different gradation coefficients on crack propagation were compared.
The full-field horizontal strain development process of gangue-cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients obtained using the DIC system is shown in Fig. 10. The entire process of the loading test strain evolution law was the same for different gradation coefficients of the gangue-cemented backfill.
As shown in Figs. 9 and 10, in the first stage (I), no visible strain and stress concentration were observed on the surface of the backfill during initial loading. In the second stage (II), as the external load increases, the backfill transitions from the compaction stage into the elastic stage, with its surface strain increasing slightly. This phenomenon is due to the gradual compaction of the primary pores within the backfill. Simultaneously, stress concentration begins to occur. The stress concentration areas vary with different gradation coefficients and are mainly concentrated in the upper and lower right regions, indicating that the backfill cracked in these areas. In the third stage (III), cracks begin to form in the stress concentration areas on the backfill surface. This phenomenon is due to the generation of new internal cracks after continuous compaction during the elastic stage. Macroscopic cracks appear on the backfill surface once the yield strength is reached. At this stage, differences were found in the number of cracks produced by backfills with different gradation coefficients. When the peak strength was reached, i.e., in the fourth stage (IV), the cracks formed in the third stage expanded, resulting in the formation of major and secondary cracks on the backfill surface. Differences were also observed in the number of primary and secondary cracks that developed on the backfill surface, depending on the gradation coefficient.
From the strain maps at different stages of the four loading processes, the following can be drawn. (1) In the uniaxial compression failure process of the cemented backfill sample, a lag was found between the change in the strain concentration area and the growth of the cracks. The degree of damage to the sample is consistent with the extent of strain concentration. (2) The primary fracture mode of the sample is shear failure, and the dominant crack growth mode is shear through.
According to the results presented in Sections 3.1 and 3.2, the gangue gradation coefficient substantially affects the physical characteristics of cemented backfill. The macroscopic destruction of the specimen is shown in Fig. 11. The cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients underwent crack initiation, expansion, penetration, and finally destruction during the compaction process. In Fig. 11, the left side is the physical map and the right side is the schematic map. When the gradation coefficient was 0.3, 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8, the backfill samples exhibited varying degrees of damage, with some areas experiencing material detachment. When the gradation coefficient was 0.2, 0.4, and 0.5, the backfill surface primarily showed shear cracks, with a few tensile cracks locally present, oriented parallel to the axial direction of the sample. As the gradation coefficient increased, the number of primary and secondary cracks on the backfill surface first increased and then decreased.
The microstructures of the gangue-cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients are shown in Fig. 12. Notably, the flocculent hydrated calcium silicate with acicular calcium alumina is attached to the surface of the product, surrounded by natural pores and defects. The majority of the gangue particles are coated with hydration products, although a small number of gangue particles remain unencapsulated by these hydration products. Additionally, the internal structure of the backfill is mainly formed by hydration products binding the matrix and gangue particles together, resulting in a structure with numerous pores and defects. As shown in Fig. 12, the backfill with a gradation coefficient of 0.3 contains more pores and microcracks compared to the sample with a gradation coefficient of 0.5, which corresponds to its lower compressive strength. The specimen with a gradation coefficient of 0.5 exhibited the smallest pore spaces and microcracks, indicating a more compact and robust internal microstructure. At this time, this specimen had the highest compressive strength. The specimen with a gradation coefficient of 0.7 had more pores and microcracks than that with a gradation coefficient of 0.3, resulting in a lower compressive strength. Backfill specimens with more internal pores and microcracks generally had lower strength.
As discussed in Section 3.1, with an increase in the gradation coefficient, the compressive strength of the gangue-cemented backfill first increased and then decreased, reaching its maximum when the gradation coefficient was 0.5. The particle size distributions and bonding states of the gangue-cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients are presented in Fig. 13. In the figure, the distribution of coarse and fine particles is not uniform across specimens with different gradation coefficients, and the compactness of the voids also varies. Thus, the number of primary pores and microcracks within the formed backfill varies, leading to differences in the strength of the backfill at the same curing age. The coarse aggregate helps create a stable skeletal structure within the backfill, while the fine aggregate interacts with the coarse particles to enhance the compactness of the molecular structure. The fine aggregate also plays a critical role in increasing the contact area between the cement slurry and the aggregate, promoting the wetting and infiltration of the cement, which improves its bonding effect. The internal structure of the backfill with a gradation coefficient of 0.3 is presented in Fig. 13(a). In this figure, the internal fine aggregate accounts for a large proportion of the total aggregate content, while coarse aggregate constitutes a relatively smaller proportion. At this point, the fine gangue particles are “oversaturated,” indicating that the hydration products generated by the hydration reaction of the cement cannot effectively envelop the gangue particles. This insufficient encapsulation suppresses the cementation effect inside the specimen, leading to relatively weak backfill strength. The internal structure of the backfill with a gradation coefficient of 0.5 is presented in Fig. 13(b). As shown in the figure, the coarse and fine aggregates are relatively uniform in proportion and well-distributed throughout the backfill. The pores formed between the coarse aggregates are largely filled by the fine aggregates, resulting in a relatively dense internal structure. Thus, the backfill with this gradation coefficient exhibited the highest strength among all the samples tested. The internal structure of the backfill with a gradation coefficient of 0.7 is presented in Fig. 13(c). As observed, the proportion of coarse aggregates is higher, while the proportion of fine aggregates is reduced. The pores formed between the coarse aggregates were not completely filled by the fine aggregates, leading to a less dense internal structure with more voids. Therefore, the strength of the backfill was lower than that of the specimen, with a gradation coefficient of 0.3.
Uniaxial compression tests were performed on gangue-cemented backfills with different gradation coefficients. The damage and fracture mechanisms of the backfills were investigated, and acoustic emission, DIC, and scanning electron microscopy were employed to analyze the multiscale evolution of cracks in the backfills. According to the results, the following conclusions are drawn.
(1) As the gangue particle size grading coefficient increased from 0.2 to 0.8, the compressive strength of the gangue-cemented backfill exhibited a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. When the grading coefficient was 0.5, the compressive strength of the backfill reached a maximum of 4.28 MPa, representing increases of 52.9% and 75.4% compared to the grading coefficients of 0.2 and 0.8, respectively. In engineering applications, optimizing the grading of the backfill aggregate and determining the optimum ratio will enhance the strength of the backfill, ensuring it maintains good stability downhole.
(2) The cumulative acoustic emission values of the backfill follow a distinct pattern of first decreasing and then increasing as the gradation coefficient rises. When the gradation factor is increased from 0.2 to 0.5, the cumulative sound emission counts decrease from 22370 to 7554, a reduction of 66.23%. However, when the gradation factor is further increased to 0.8, the cumulative sound emission counts increase to 90390, representing a 304.07% rise compared to the cumulative acoustic emission counts for the backfill with a gradation efficiency of 0.2.
(3) With different gangue gradation coefficients, the proportions of coarse and fine aggregates in the backfill vary, along with the number of primary pores and microcracks. Additionally, the bonding state of the cement produced by the hydration reaction differs, which influences the effectiveness of the cementation process and ultimately leads to differences in backfill strength.
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52174095 and 51804310)
Renshu Yang is an editorial board member for this journal and was not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this article. All authors do not have competing interests to declare.
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| n | 0–3 mm | 3–6 mm | 6–9 mm | 9–12 mm | 12–15 mm |
| 0.2 | 72.5 | 10.8 | 7.0 | 5.3 | 4.4 |
| 0.3 | 61.7 | 14.3 | 9.6 | 7.7 | 6.5 |
| 0.4 | 52.5 | 16.8 | 12.2 | 10.0 | 8.5 |
| 0.5 | 44.7 | 18.5 | 14.3 | 11.9 | 10.6 |
| 0.6 | 38.1 | 19.6 | 15.9 | 13.9 | 12.5 |
| 0.7 | 32.4 | 20.3 | 17.2 | 15.6 | 14.5 |
| 0.8 | 27.6 | 20.4 | 18.5 | 17.2 | 16.3 |
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